Nutrition Digest Book

Preface

June 2001

It is with great pride that I am able to present this revised and updated edition of Nutrition Digest. I hope that this book will become widely used as a handy reference source by both health professionals and the general public.

The science of nutrition is expanding rapidly and this edition represents  much of what we now know. Many new and exciting discoveries are yet to be made, and we feel that new discoveries will further substantiate our fundamental belief that we are what we ingest, or rather what we absorb. Good health is no accident, nor is poor health. Both are the result of our lifestyles. Good health must be earned. It is the result of our knowledge and our application of that knowledge. Good nutrition is one of the fundamental requirements, along with adequate exercise, rest and mental balance to achieve optimum health through one's lifetime.

I wish to thank the many dedicated individuals who have contributed over the years to the continuing updating and improvement of this work. A special appreciation to Richard Schekenback, M.Sc., who undertook the significant task of preparing the first edition in 1983 and to Ann McCullough, M.Sc., M.D., who worked very closely with Richard on the first edition. Special thanks go also to Dr. Anthony Cheung and Dr. K.S. Lai for their valuable contribution over the years. Finally, a great appreciation is expressed to Udo Erasmus, B.Sc., PhD. for the major work in updating and revising the present edition.

In this edition, we present the latest EC RDAs and the recently compiled Suggested Optimal Nutritional Allowances (SONAs) as elaboated on pages 22-32, based on the painstaking research of Dr. Emmanuel Cheraskin and Dr. William Ringsdorf. The advanced nutritional formula the 'SONA' reflects much of what these scientists discovered and represents the pinnacle of nutritional supplementation.

I hope the Nutrition Digest will serve the intended purposes of informing and guiding all who use it to a healthy and prosperous life.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

GOALS

     The goal of this publication is threefold:

1. to educate consumers about essential nutrients and high quality sources of these products;
2. to correlate biochemical and medical facts where research and clinical practice has established links; and
3. to dispel myths wherever necessary.

     We hope that you find this publication instructive, and that you use it to help those who seek a higher level of health learn more about the benefits of nutritional supplements.

     Even though foods and nutritional supplement products do form the basis for optimal and vibrant health, cynicism about the value of supplements persists within a large sector of the public. This cynicism results from simple ignorance of the facts, as well as from erroneous information and/or misleading claims regarding the use of nutritional supplements.

     Often, misinformation begins as an anecdotal report. Misinformed individuals may embellish this report, and pass the embellished version on to nutritionally untrained friends and professionals as "fact".  Pretty soon, this "fact" has become folklore, embedded in custom through the grape vine, even if the initial report was completely wrong. It takes research and years of educational effort to re-establish the truth.

     People at all levels of our society — eager novices, self-proclaimed experts, manufactures, retail sales personnel, doctors, and patients — take part in creating the credibility problem that results from disseminating misinformation. Some act with good intentions, but without accurate information. Some simply repeat without thinking whatever they hear. And some systematically mis-educate for the sake of short-term gain.

     It is vital to the well-being both of individuals concerned with their health, and in the industry which supplies these individuals with the tools to do so, that we maintain factual representation of the benefits of nutritional supplements.

ECHOES THROUGH TIME

     "Respiration is a slow combustion of carbon and hydrogen, which is entirely similar to that which obtains in a lamp or lighted candle. Animals which respire are truly combustible bodies which burn and consume themselves. In respiration, as in combustion, it is air which furnishes the oxygen, but in respiration, it is the body substance which furnishes the heat. If animals do not replace constantly the losses of respiration, the lamp soon lacks oil and the animal dies, as a lamp goes out when it lacks fuel."

     "The doctor of the future . . . . will instruct his patient in the care of the body . . . .through the proper use of foods."

     "The entire human body is made from food, water and air. It follows from this fact that the quality of our health is determined largely by what we eat, drink and breathe.

     "The key building blocks of physical health are less than 50 essential nutrients -- 13 vitamins, 22 or 23 minerals, 8, 10, or 11 essential amino acids, and 2 essential fatty acids. These are substances the human body cannot make, cannot live or be healthy without, and must obtain from foods or from food supplements.

     "Optimum daily quantities of the essential nutrients are essential for optimum health." Current nutritional thinking

I. GENERAL INFORMATION

SOURCE MATERIALS

     The source material for this publication comes from university textbooks in biochemistry, clinical nutrition, and medicine, from journals in medicine, nutrition, nutritional biochemistry, clinical biochemistry, orthomolecular medicine, lipids (fats and oils), soil science, agricultural science, and processing technology, and from the practical experience of clinicians who use nutrients to treat disease and establish and maintain health. The main reference books used to create this publication include:

A.   FOODS, DIGESTION, NUTRIENTS, AND HEALTH

1. OVERVIEW

     The importance of foods and digestion to human health cannot be over-emphasized!!

     The entire human body — atoms, molecules, cells, tissues, and organs — is made from food, water, and air. Every nerve, muscle, gland, secretion, bone, and hair begins as food we eat, water we drink, or air we breathe.

     Everything that makes up our body originated outside of it. Water and air — simple molecules universal to all life — are absorbed into the body unchanged. Foods, on the other hand, consist of complex substances which differ from one species to another, and even from one member of a species to another member of the same species.

     Foods carry the potential for building optimally functioning —healthy—bodies, but they must first be transformed by digestion. If undigested foods were to enter our blood, serious illness would result. Undigested foods are incompatible with the body and with health. Our digestive system turns the food material that we eat and drink into material compatible to our body, from which our body and our health can then be built.

     After digestion transforms the foods we eat into compatible components, the body absorbs these components and uses them as building blocks to construct the molecules, cells, and tissues that are the human body.

     When digestion fails to effectively transform foods into its small, compatible, health-building body construction materials, incompatible (undigested) food molecules may be absorbed. These interfere with the co-operative succession of events vital to the harmony of health. They may create social disharmony on the molecular level by stealing electrons. Molecular fragments known as free radicals result. The body’s defenses, organized by the immune system, come out to neutralize these free radicals. If the first defenses are insufficient, the immune system steps up its activities, and complex molecular events take place which we experience as acute and chronic disease.

Protected access

     Everything we eat and drink enters the body through our digestive system. Before foods are given access into the body, they have to pass certain barriers that protect the body from harm by substances not conducive to the maintenance of health. This barrier is not perfect—especially when dealing with synthetic substances that were not part of the natural system within which human digestion developed—but provides relatively effective protection against the entrance of foreign materials.

     The digestive barrier allows passage of small components of foods, components which are building blocks for the construction of all organisms — one-celled, plant, and animal. Easy access to the body is given to vitamins, essential and other amino acids, essential and other fatty acids, glycerol, glucose and other simple sugars, minerals with their electrical charges neutralized (by chelation with amino acids), purine and pyrimidine bases from which genetic material is constructed, and other simple, natural molecules.

     Most of the foods we eat are not consumed in the form of simple food components. They are large, complex, often giant super-molecules of proteins, starches and other polysaccharides, and nucleic acid polymers specific to the organism of whose body they were a part.

Dismantle and re-assemble

     To convert these complex molecules into simple, absorbable ones, nature evolved the process of digestion. During this process, complex molecules from the one-celled organisms, plants, and animals that serve as our foods are systematically dismantled into the building blocks common to all life forms. We absorb these building blocks and, inside our bodies, we re-assemble them in our own unique fashion to make our own super-molecules of "us-specific" proteins, genetic material, complex carbohydrates, and so on. Every species of animal, in its digestion, follows a similar process with whatever species of plant or animal is its food.

     Through this remarkable invention of nature — digestion (dismantling), absorption, and re-synthesis (re-assembly) — the bodies of potatoes, carrots, and fish serve as the basis for their own transformation into human bodies. Every organism, as food for other organisms, suffers the same glorious transformation.

     While the sloppy and misleading statement "You are what you eat!" has hurt the credibility of the natural foods industry — you don’t become a pea by eating peas, nor a pig by eating pork — our bodies are made from what we eat, and our foods do carry the construction materials for human bodies.

2. DIGESTION, ABSORPTION, RE-SYNTHESIS

     Foods supply the energy necessary to maintain life, and the building blocks necessary for the construction of the body. Yet foods are useless for both these purposes until many enzymes and chemicals in the digestive tract have acted upon them.

Digestion

     Digestion —the conversion of foods into smaller components (nutrients) that the body can use — is the first set of steps in a complex process which transforms a grain, a vegetable, a fish, or a salad into skin, bones, muscle, blood, and nerves.

     During digestion, stomach acid and protein-digesting enzymes (proteases) break down proteins into amino acids. Fat-digesting enzymes (lipases) break fats and oils into fatty acids, monoglycerides, and glycerol. Carbohydrate-digesting enzymes (carbohydrases) break starch, glycogen, malts, syrups, dextrans and other polysaccharides into simple sugars. Other enzymes break down DNA and RNA into their components (nucleotides: purines and pyrimidines; sugars: ribose and deoxyribose; and phosphate). Still other enzymes break cholesterol esters into their components — cholesterol and fatty acids.

     Good digestion has to take place before efficient absorption is possible, necessary to generate good health. Incomplete digestion causes many problems, including poor absorption of nutrients, a nutrient-starved body prone to deficiency symptoms and infection, intestinal fermentation of undigested materials, intestinal gas and toxin production, and absorption of undigested materials leading to food sensitivities, allergies, and immune reactions.

     Complete lack of digestion would make absorption of the building blocks necessary for the construction of human bodies impossible.

Absorption

     From digested foods, the body draws nutrients into itself. It uses these nutrients to build, maintain, repair, and replace molecules, cells, and tissues. Nutritious foods, well digested and efficiently absorbed, provide the basis of radiant health.

     Poor absorption of food components results in a body deficient in building materials. Cells and tissues deteriorate. Digestive enzymes and stomach acid, which the body makes from the building blocks that it absorbs, may become insufficient, making for poor digestion, further decreasing the quantity of nutrients available for absorption, in a vicious circle. Poor absorption therefore leads to poor health.

     The efficiency of digestion and absorption decreases as we age.

3. THE HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

     A continuous muscular tube, the human digestive system includes mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestine, and anus. We sub-divide the intestine into duodenum, small intestine consisting of jejunum and ileum, and large intestine or colon. Each part of the digestive tract performs a different set of functions important to health.

The Process of Digestion

     When the process of digestion is working properly, it breaks down complex molecules into simple ones that the body can readily absorb (assimilate). The body then uses these simple molecules to produce energy and to build its own unique molecules. These provide the vitality and the form of human health

     Valves, which are rings of muscular material, and the muscles in the walls of the tube regulate the speed at which the progressively more digested food material moves down the tube. Muscular contractions mix and move food through the digestive system. Various chemicals and enzymes introduced at various points along the tract perform the specific digestive functions necessary to digest foods into components that the body can absorb.

Mouth

     The body's need for building materials creates the feeling of hunger, which signals us to eat. Digestion begins in the mouth. Chewing, the first digestive process, grinds larger pieces of food into smaller particles. It moistens food with saliva, and thoroughly mixes the broken food, increasing its surface area to the action of enzymes throughout the entire digestive tract. An enzyme present in salvia (amylase) begins the breakdown of starch into glucose while food is still in our mouth. The action of this enzyme explains why, if we chew a starchy food for a long time, it begins to taste sweet.

Esophagus

     Chewed food is swallowed, entering the esophagus in which the muscular contractions of peristalsis begin. Peristalsis, a downward moving alternate constriction and relaxation of muscle, kneads the food material and propels it along the digestive tract in rhythmic waves. Three or four seconds after swallowing, the swallowed material passes a ring-like valve that separates the esophagus from the stomach. This cardia valve prevents material in the stomach from being regurgitated into the esophagus. 

Duodenum

     Several alkaline secretions enter the duodenum, a U-shaped, 8 to 10 inch long section of the small intestine. These secretions change highly acidic, liquefied food material from the stomach to weakly basic.

     The secretions which bring about this change from acidic to basic include bile from the liver and gall bladder, pancreatic juice from the pancreas, and secretions from the intestinal wall. The enzymes of the small intestine that facilitate digestion and absorption can fulfill their functions only in alkaline conditions.

Liver

     Thousands of chemical transformations related to nutrition and essential to health take place in the liver. It detoxifies harmful molecules, stores several vitamins and minerals, converts carotenes to Vitamin A, and stores glycogen — "animal starch" — a carbohydrate that sustains blood sugar levels. The liver also metabolizes fats, and produces cholesterol, enzymes, and substances required for blood clotting (coagulation).

     The liver also produces and delivers dilute bile fluid to the gall bladder, which chemically modifies and concentrates this fluid. A fat-containing meal triggers the release of the resulting bile, a complex, concentrated alkaline fluid containing bile pigments (blood breakdown products), bile salts (cholesterol molecules modified to make them water-soluble), bicarbonate, and other mineral electrolytes. Bile facilitates the digestion of fats, and aids in efficient fat absorption into the body through the villi of the small intestine. The body eventually reabsorbs bile salts, but removes the bile pigments from the body with bowel wastes.

Pancreas

     The pancreas, best known for secreting the hormone insulin that moves blood sugar into our cells (preventing diabetes), also produces and secretes pancreatic juice into the duodenum. Pancreatic juice contains the enzymes necessary to completely digest the liquefied, pre-digested, now alkaline food that entered the small intestine from the stomach.

     Protein-digesting enzymes from the pancreas include trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen, procarboxypeptidases A&B, and proelastase. Pancreatic fat-digesting enzymes include phospholipase and triacylglyceride lipase. Pancreatic juice also contains the carbohydrate-digesting amylase, and the nucleic acid-digesting deoxyribonuclease and ribonuclease enzymes.

Jejunum & Ileum

     Peristalsis moves digesting food from the duodenum into the jejunum, then into the ileum; the two main parts of the small intestine. The inside lining of these parts are covered with millions of tiny, finger-like projections (villi). These increase the surface area available for contact between the small intestine and its digested food material. 

     Glands located at the base of the villi produce alkaline intestinal juice containing many more enzymes, mucus and electrolyte minerals. Villi, in constant expanding and shrinking motion, keep semi-liquid digested materials surrounding them in motion as well. 

     Villi absorb amino acids and small peptides (chains of a few amino acids) derived from proteins, sugars derived from complex carbohydrates, and short-chain fatty acids derived from fats. The blood vessel network of the villi carries all these to the liver via the portal vein. Long-chain fatty acids enter the body through lymphatic channels in the villi of the small intestine.

Large Intestine

     A third valve in our digestive tract, ileocaecal valve, marks the passage from the small into the large intestine. It prevents food wastes in the colon from flowing back into the ileum. Watery materials enter the colon and move, by "leisurely" peristaltic contractions, through the large intestine. The large intestine, comprised of cecum, colon, sigmoid colon, rectum and anal sphincters, contains no villi. Main functions include reabsorption of water, and storage of wastes. A large number of different kinds of bacteria lives in the colon. Along with indigestible and unabsorbed material, these bacteria constitute the bulk of the feces.

     It takes 12 to 14 hours for material entering the colon to pass out of the large intestine through the anal sphincters, two ring-like voluntary muscles terminating the digestive tract. After foods have been digested and food components absorbed into the body, remaining undigested and undigestible waste material accumulates in the colon. Its pressure produces the "gotta go" urge, which leads to the evacuation of the accumulated waste from the body.

Things go wrong

     When the digestive system does not work properly, its malfunctions affect our health in many different ways. Choosing to eat foods with poor nutritional quality may result in obtaining fewer essential nutrients than the body requires for health.

Inadequate chewing can result in incomplete digestion, failure to absorb some of the nutrients that foods contain, intestinal fermentation, gas, and toxin production which affects colon health. Some of these toxins may be absorbed and stress the liver, kidneys, and immune system.

Lack of stomach acid can result in inadequate protein digestion, inability to absorb Vitamin B-12, and intestinal putrefaction with generation of toxins which may be absorbed into the body, and which also affect colon health. 

Lack of digestive enzymes results in incomplete digestion, putrefaction, decreased absorption of essential nutrients, and internal toxin production that increase the load on kidneys, liver and immune system.

Inadequate liver function can result in difficulties in assimilating nutrients, especially fats. Nausea or heavy, tired feeling after fat-containing meals is an indication of deficient liver function. If liver function is weak, detoxification processes for which it is responsible may be deficient, leading to negative effects on every cell, tissue, and organ, and allowing toxins to accumulate throughout the body.

Pancreatic insufficiency leads to seriously impaired digestion which affects the entire intestinal tract, mal-absorption which leads to deficiency of essential nutrients in the body, and lowered vitality of all cells and tissues.

     Nutrient absorption tends to decrease with age because, like all aging cells, absorptive cells become less efficient in their functions as we age. If nutrient content of our foods is deficient, the absorption difficulties are magnified, because malnourished aging cells are even less able to do their job. 

     Supplementation of the diet with essential nutrients, enzymes, fiber, herbs, and other substances can contribute to significant improvements in health in many of these situations.

4. HUMAN HEALTH

Foods build bodies

     The entire human body is made from foods, water, and air. Every molecule within the body must come from these sources. 

     Foods must provide the building blocks essential for building a human body. If foods contain these building blocks in appropriate quantities, the body built from them functions the way nature designed it to — with energy, with vitality, without trouble. Such a body rarely breaks down.

     This natural state — human health — results from consuming the necessary quantities of essential nutrients, completely digesting the sources that contain these essential nutrients, efficiently absorbing the nutrients, and properly utilizing them in the body.

From before birth

     The unborn child depends on the foods the mother eats for the nutrients to build its body. The suckling new-born also depends, for all of its nutrient requirements, on what its mother eats, digests, and absorbs. If mother’s body during her pregnancy absorbs all of the essential nutrients in optimum quantities, the child is likely to be born healthy, to develop with few problems and set-backs, and to thrive.

     Later, the individual’s state of health depends largely on the nutrient content in their own food choices, and their own body’s ability to digest and absorb the nutrients these foods contain. Parents’ nutritional knowledge and practices in the home play an important role in the health of their children, and help to teach good or bad nutritional habits that will last a life time and be passed on in turn to future generations.

     Health is also affected by stress and other life style factors. These too are learned and taught. 

Essential nutrients

     To build a normally functioning body, foods must contain appropriate quantities of less than 50 essential nutrients. These are substances that the body cannot make, substances its cells must have to live and to function normally (be healthy), substances that it must therefore obtain from foods, food concentrates, or supplements. 

     The essential nutrients include 22 or 23 minerals, 13 vitamins, 8 essential amino acids (10 for children; 11 for premature infants), and 2 essential fatty acids. From these, a healthy individual’s body makes other substances the body requires for healthy functioning. Individuals may derive additional benefits from a diet which includes conditionally essential and non-essential nutrients.

Deficiency

     Deficiency of any essential nutrient results in alteration of normal cell, tissue, and body functions (biochemistry), accompanied by symptoms of deteriorating health. Deficiency of each essential nutrient has its own set of deficiency symptoms. Prolonged deficiency can lead, through progressive deterioration, to death. Complete absence of any essential nutrient must result in death when the body’s stores of that nutrient are completely used up. 

     We cannot live without essential nutrients.

Minimum health

     The minimum amount of an essential nutrient, required to prevent deficiency symptoms in a healthy person, can be established. This measure, embodied by the government-set Recommended Daily Allowance (RDA), can be expected to provide an average measure of minimum health. Below this amount, symptoms of deterioration can be expected in a large percentage of the population. 

     A large part of the population does not obtain even this minimum amount of essential nutrients from the foods they eat. The percentage of the population deficient varies for each essential nutrient. Some essential nutrients are so common, or required in such small amounts, that deficiency is not likely to occur. Other essential nutrients may be so rare in presently eaten foods that almost 100% of the population obtains less of this nutrient than they need for maintaining their health. 

     Degenerative symptoms, which accompany degenerative diseases such as heart and artery disease, cancer, and diabetes are widespread. These three conditions kill 68% of the population. Furthermore, drugs, antibiotics, and the other miracles of modern medicine — surgery, radiation, life support systems, and chemotherapy — do not address the cause of these diseases, and cannot cure them. Foods (nutrients) are better suited to treat and cure degenerative conditions than are medicines. 

     How much of each nutrient would be required in a person’s diet in order to give that person the optimum amount of each essential nutrient for optimum cell, tissue, and body functions (biochemical and physiological processes)? An average measure of such quantities was recently proposed in the Suggested Optimum Nutritional Allowance (SONA) to the U. S. Senate. 

     SONAs are based on a long-term study carried out at the University of Alabama Medical School by Drs. Cheraskin and Ringsdorf. These doctors found that the healthiest people in their study — who had the least signs and symptoms of disease — consumed nutritional supplements, and obtained essential nutrients from foods and from supplements in daily amounts that sometimes exceeded the RDAs by a factor of 20 times. SONAs for other nutrients were also much higher than the RDAs, but SONAs for a few nutrients were about equal to RDAs. 

     SONAs are average measures that are likely to result in improved health for a very large part of the population. But they leave some important, specific questions unanswered. Would even higher quantities of essential nutrients — such as are being taken by many individuals — have resulted in even better health than Drs Cheraskin and Ringsdorf found in their study?

Individual optimum 

     Every individual is different in their biochemistry from other individuals, and therefore differs in his or her requirement of the quantities of essential nutrients that lead to optimum cell, tissue, and body function. The SONAs are an average measure of good health. Many people in the study had to consume higher quantities, and many consumed smaller quantities to arrive at these average figures. 

     The key question that every individual must ask about their own optimum health is this: What is the daily quantity of each essential nutrient that will lead to optimum health for me? For you? Because we are different, this individual optimum has to be individually determined. To some extent, this determination depends on individual trial and observation. 

     A second key consideration in determining an individual’s optimum intake of essential nutrients is the fact that this optimum changes with activity, life style, stress, age, exposure to virus, fungus, and bacteria, and other factors. Because all of these change over time, today’s optimum may not be optimum for tomorrow. To maintain optimum intakes under changing conditions, I need to become sensitive to my body, to listen to it, to feel it, and learn to understand what it tells me. It does let me know its needs — through hunger and thirst, through how I feel, through how my energy levels change with the day, my lunch, the supplements I try, etc.

Toxicity

     Just as there are deficiency symptoms from not getting enough of an essential nutrient, there are symptoms from getting too much of certain essential nutrients. Excess consumption of the oil-soluble vitamins A and D is possible, and does happen sometimes. Imbalances or excesses of essential nutrients can lead to sub-optimal functioning, and may lead to toxic symptoms. 

     Essential nutrient-related toxic symptoms are rare, and can be reversed by discontinuing supplementation of the nutrient(s). They are almost never life-threatening or irreversible. Since 1900, there have been 4 deaths from Vitamin A and D overdose. Two of these deaths were due to eating polar bear liver, which is extremely high in these two vitamins, but is not available to us. 

     Deaths from toxic doses of essential nutrients are extremely rare. In comparison, drug-related deaths are quite frequent, 40 being attributed each year to aspirin alone, which is one of the least toxic pharmaceutical drugs on the market. 

     The danger of toxicity from an excess or imbalance of essential nutrients is also very small compared to the danger of deficiency, which affects upward of 60% of the population may be as high as 90%, and kills 68% of us through degenerative diseases.

5. THE CASE FOR NUTRIENT SUPPLEMENTS     

     There is no doubt that the body is made from foods. There is no doubt that every molecule in the body originated outside of it. It follows that foods and food quality make an important contribution to the development, not only of health, but also of tumors; fatty deposits in our arteries; fatty deposits in our liver, kidney, and brain; moles, warts, and growths; and every kind of cellular malfunction.

     Foods therefore make an important contribution to building and maintaining health, and to treating disease conditions. Health, by definition, is the right kinds of molecules (foods, water, and air), in the right amounts, involved in the right kinds of chemical interactions to build, maintain, and repair a body made out of these foods.

Nutrient deficiencies

     Because they are necessary for the biochemical reactions basic to life, essential nutrients play key roles in the establishment and maintenance of health. It follows that nutrient deficiencies are important factors in the development of disease. Possible causes of nutrient deficiencies — which have increased dramatically over the last 100 years — are easy to identify. They include: 

1. Soils are becoming more and more mineral-deficient. Plants remove 20 or more minerals from soils in which they grow. Commercial fertilizers replace only 4 to 6 of these minerals. Year by year, more minerals leave the farm in foods grown on the soil, are eaten by humans, and the wastes containing these minerals from the soil are flushed (down the toilet) into our rivers (polluting our drinking water in the process) and swept out to the ocean. Estimates and measurements indicate that crops remove half of the minerals present in topsoil every 50 years. Plants deficient in minerals may manufacture less vitamins. Nitrogen fertilizers "drive" plants to grow faster by absorbing and retaining more water (vegetables with edema), but do not absorb more minerals. The grower obtains added profit for water-logged produce regardless of its nutrient content.
2. Produce is harvested unripe, before all of the minerals have been absorbed, and before nutritional qualities have fully developed and matured.
3. Transport is as stressful for plants as it is for humans, and results in nutrient losses.
4. Storage results in vitamin losses, and also affects essential fatty acid content.

1. Food preferences and habits have been influenced through advertising, toward less nutritious but more shelf-stable foods (especially true for Omega 3 essential fatty acids).

2. Advertising has helped to increase sales of more and more processed (less nutrient-dense) foods.

3. Advertising has led consumers to choose fewer and fewer whole foods in their natural state, and more and more prepared, processed, refined, nutrient-poor convenience foods.

C. Processing

1. Refining removes 99% of all nutrients from sugar beets and sugar cane.

2. Processing and refining grains to make white flour removes 50 to 100% of the vitamins, minerals, and fatty acids, and up to 33% of the protein.

3. Processing and refining oil seeds to make colorless, odorless, tasteless refined oils removes all the protein and fiber, 95% of the minerals, and most of the vitamins. Lecithin, phytosterols, and other nutrients are also removed.

4. In canning, potassium is replaced with sodium. Heat destroys up to 50 or more percent of some vitamins.

5. Freezing, drying, pickling, blanching, cooking, canning, baking, deep frying, and storage all result in nutrient losses.

6. Hydrogenation, which produces margarines, shortenings, shortening oils, and partially hydrogenated oils, destroys essential fatty acids.

7. Food irradiation, a nutritional disaster, destroys most essential nutrients and in addition, produces unnatural and toxic substances.

1. We eat fewer raw, sprouted, and whole foods.

2. Cooking decreases the digestibility of proteins.

3. High temperature food preparation (fry, deep-fry) destroys nutrients by combined exposure to light (generates free radicals), oxygen (oxidizes) and heat (speeds up the rate of chemical reactions). Frying is especially hard on essential fatty acids.

4. Fast food choices are less nutritious than whole foods freshly prepared with loving care and awareness of the nutrient needs for health.

5. Fast foods contain many substances that slow down metabolism and clog the biochemical wheels of life. Saturated fats, cholesterol, and processed fats (margarines, shortenings) fit into this category.

Increased nutrient needs

1. An increasingly stressful life style uses up more essential nutrients than one that is less stressed (depression results in loss of Vitamin C). Hurried eating and eating while under stress results in poor digestion, poor absorption, and the creation of toxic substances.

2. Addition of artificial flavors, colors, stabilizers, preservatives, and other additives increases the need for essential nutrients that the body needs to deal with these unnatural substances.

3. Consumption of hydrogenated (trans-fatty acid-containing) products interferes with essential fatty acid functions in the body. Also, trans-fatty acids affect heart and arteries negatively, because they lower the protective HDL and increase the detrimental LDL cholesterol. Trans-fatty acids also interfere with the liver’s most important detoxification systems (Cytochrome P450), and this compromises not only liver function but immune function as well. Increased quantities of essential nutrients are necessary to deal with the effects of hydrogenation and trans-fatty acids in foods.

4. Increased levels of toxins in food, water, and air (pesticides, chlorine, ozone, nitrous oxides, and many, many more) require an increase in the intake of those substances involved in detoxification, the processes by which the body rids itself of its toxic burdens. The essential nutrients — antioxidants, minerals, vitamins, and essential fatty acids — are intimately involved in these processes. They provide the necessary nutritional support for these cleansing processes.

5. Increased use of drugs (legal & illegal), which the body must detoxify, using up essential nutrients (birth control pills increase the requirement for Vitamin B-6).

6. Viruses (Herpes I & II, AIDS, Epstein-Barr, etc.) & bacteria endemic in the population increase our nutrient needs.

7. Nutrient needs are increased during pregnancy, lactation, growth, and adolescence.

8. Nutrient needs are increased after injury and during convalescence.

9. Increased nutrient needs due to aging become apparent after age 30, and increase as age progresses.

1. Genetically, our digestive ability may not be 100% to begin with. Most of us also have genetically determined needs for extraordinary quantities of one or more of the essential nutrients.

2. Our eating habits may leave something to be desired. We don’t chew properly, eat on the run, eat under stress, eat nutrient-poor foods, etc.

3. Digestion deteriorates with age. Stomach hydrochloric acid production declines. Enzyme production decreases. Absorption becomes less efficient. Elimination of toxins & wastes becomes more difficult. Cell, gland, and organ functions decline.

4. Illness, especially of the gastro-intestinal tract, decreases digestive and absorptive capacity. Diseases of glands, liver, and kidneys also have negative effects on digestion.

     In addition to correcting the health-damaging nutrient deficiencies caused by decreased food quality, increased nutrient needs due to stress and toxins, and nutrient enrichment to compensate for digestive imperfections, a case can be made for nutritional supplementation for three positive goals.

     What about stretching our years beyond those allotted to us on the usual diet of meat and potatoes, or even by a more natural diet of grains, greens, and fish? To add years to our life, we can supplement a natural diet with anti-oxidant, anti-aging nutrients, and with a balanced program of supplements above our basic requirement for living "three score years and ten".

     Supplements can improve the quality of our physical condition, adding life to our years as well as years to our life.

1. Supplements can be used to extend physical performance — strength and endurance — in athletics.

2. Supplements can improve business performance by increasing stamina, vitality, and staying power, extending the time that we can function (with or without added stress) before fatigue sets in.

3. Supplements can improve active sex life as well as family life by increasing energy levels.

4. Supplemented maternal diets result in healthier children with fewer, shorter, and less severe childhood illnesses, and fewer complications from these illnesses.

5. Supplementation improves children’s ability to concentrate, improves their work, and raises their grades in school.

Confirmed by surveys

     Surveys indicate that the nutritional quality of the foods eaten by the average individual is declining. At present, the number of people improving their nutritional intake is still quite small. Foods served in hospitals have been shown to worsen the nutrient status of patients within 2 weeks of their admittance. Nurses’ diets were found to be seriously deficient in essential nutrients.

     Some of the nutritional surveys included thousands of people from every part of North America, from every age group, from every economic level (poorer people did even worse than economically advantaged people). The largest of these surveys, carried out by the U.S. government, measured food intakes of 36,000 and 80,000 people, respectively.

     In the 1930’s, Dr. Weston Price, a dentist, traveled around the world to correlate the food habits and health of traditional people and tribes of all races around the world. He found that the traditional whole foods eaten by these people resulted in strong bone structure, wide angular jaws such as we like to admire in both male and female models of beauty and health, straight teeth, virtually no tooth decay, and perfect dental arches.

     Within one generation of trade contact with white "civilized" man, and trading white sugar and white flour for the goods of their tradition, these people had the same incidence of tooth decay, narrow faces, and crooked teeth as was common in white populations of the time. His findings are recorded, complete with photos of rows of straight (traditional diet) and crooked (sugar & flour) teeth, in his book "Nutrition and Physical Degeneration".

     Traditional food habits around the world support populations in a healthier way of life than our opulent, over-abundant but nutrient-deficient present way of life. Examination of these traditional diets confirms the diagnosis. Whole foods contain more essential nutrients. The populations eating these foods live lives less marred by physical degeneration and degenerative diseases.

      The opposite correlation holds true as well. Historical records of food habits confirm that our foods today contain smaller quantities of essential nutrients than they did 100 or 200 years ago, before the advent of refined sugar, refined flour, and refined everything. Records also show that the incidence of today’s degenerative conditions — cardiovascular disease, cancer, diabetes, and others — was less frequent before the advent of the technology that gave us refined, shelf-stable, nutrient-poor foods.

     Worsening food habits over the last 200 years correlate with increasing incidence of degeneration. Medicines do not provide real relief of degenerative conditions. They may manage the symptoms, but don’t slow the progression of these diseases. Medicine’s track record is unimpressive in the treatment of cancer, heart and artery disease, diabetes, arthritis, pre-menstrual syndrome, etc.

     Medical doctors using supplements of essential nutrients, sometimes in large doses, have witnessed remarkable reversals of degeneration in patients. Naturopathic physicians trained in nutritional therapy often get remarkable results after drug-prescribing doctors have given up, unsuccessful. Lay people with an interest and practical knowledge of foods and herbs have also been able to succeed in reversing degenerative conditions where the professionals have failed.

     There are people diagnosed with terminal cancer, still alive without any signs of cancer 40 years after doctors told them their last "I’m sorry, . . . ". Natural foods, supplements, changes in life style to minimize stress, certain herbs, and other natural remedies set the conditions that allowed the body to heal itself. These people are living proof of the healing power of foods and supplements, living proof that degenerative diseases can be stopped, reversed, and healed.

From cure to prevention...

     From the point of view of our goal of health, reversing degenerative diseases provides powerful testimony of the medicinal value of foods. But it is even smarter to prevent degenerative conditions from occurring in the first place, by adopting preventive lifestyles and eating preventive foods and supplements, those foods and supplements that are in alignment with the body’s requirements.

     Prevention involves a small investment of time, for learning about nutrition and about the human body. Compared to other professions, which may require years of concentrated and specialized study, it is relatively easy to master the basics of preventive nutrition. Having been eating and living in our bodies for many years already, we already have a lot of valuable information about our health. It is just a matter of formalizing much of this experiential information, and making the links to both researched and common sense information about foods and human health.

     The investment of time required to master nutrition is far less than the time people spend, especially in the second half of life, trying to find effective treatments for the conditions that resulted from not taking the time to learn to live preventively earlier on.

     But prevention of disease is still a negative focus. Is our goal the absence of disease or the presence of health? Our flight from disease, based on fear of disease, could be replaced by embracing health, based on love for health. 

     Health is a presence. Disease is its absence. Health has components that can be identified. Disease is the result of one or more of these components being absent.

     Research has identified the physical components of health — the essential nutrients — the building blocks for making human bodies that exemplify the natural state of health, bodies which function optimally. The quality of what we eat and drink, and our level of activity determine our health. We can enjoy health from conception to old age. 

     The medical model does not address degenerative conditions effectively. Its premise — that disease is a presence, and health the absence of disease — is wrong. To try to remove a degenerative condition based in the absence of essential nutrients is like trying to remove darkness — impossible. One cannot remove something that is already not there. Darkness is the absence of light. Disease is the absence of health.

     Pursuing health requires us to identify and embody the components of health. Besides the essential nutrients that whole foods, food concentrates, and supplements of minerals, vitamins, essential amino acids, and essential fatty acids contain, herbs can tone and tune our cells. These components of health will be described in the remainder of this publication.

     Other factors for building and maintaining health include:

• activity that keeps our bodies fit for life;

• life style factors that minimize stress and maximize enjoyment;

• detoxification methods for the body;

• factors of ethics and attitude;

• the pursuit of goals that align both with our nature and the nature of the planet;

• the development of the habits of confidence, competence, responsibility, and care;

• learning to live in harmony, friendly to life and to living, friendly to nature and environment, friendly to self and planet, in love. These factors of health go beyond the scope of this publication.

B. ESTABLISHING A SUGGESTED OPTIMAL NUTRIENT ALLOWANCE (SONA)

The Weakness of the RDAs

     In May of 1941, a committee of the National Academy of Sciences suggested for the first time a "Recommended Daily Dietary Allowance" of nutrients. These guidelines were developed in the hope of reducing the incidence of nutritional deficiencies such as scurvy (deficiency of vitamin C), pellegra (deficiency of niacin) and beri-beri (deficiency of B1) in the general population. Since then, nutritionists, dieticians, and physicians have relied on this reference standard, and its many revisions commonly referred to by its abbreviation, the RDA.

     The RDAs (Council, 1980 544) (Council 1989 1201) were intended: (1) as guidelines for the prevention of nutritional deficiencies, and (2) to be related to the nutrient status of population groups, not individuals. 

     Point two is important since it is a common fallacy to use the RDAs to evaluate the adequacy of an individuals’ diet by comparison to these population guidelines. 

     It is an even graver error to associate the RDAs with levels of nutrient intake able to insure the maintenance of health over a life-time. Only recently has it become apparent that "healthy normal people" are an ideal rather than a practical concept. Among Americans aged 60 and over, more than 80 percent suffer from at least one chronic disease, such as cancer, atherosclerosis, osteoporosis, macular degeneration of the eye, or diabetes.

     Since at least 1951, critics of the RDAs (Proudit, 1951 1203, p.176) have pointed out that the RDAs lack the ability to recommend levels of nutrients sufficient to maintain health for one's whole life span. Studies to determine the level of any nutrient sufficient to prevent a nutritional deficiency were conducted for periods of up to 6 to 9 months, or about 1 percent of the average human life span. Nutritional studies with animals have shown again and again that the amounts of some nutrients sufficient to provide health and the prevention of a deficiency disease for short periods of time may be totally inadequate in maintaining the health of the animal over its entire life span. This may be one reason that these minimal dietary standards are incapable of providing the levels of nutrients essential to prevent many chronic diseases.

     Even earlier editions of the RDAs published in the 1940s clearly stated that the RDAs "vary greatly in disease" (Council, 1948 1202). Yet, in spite of this realization, the RDAs continued to focus only on the prevention of nutritional deficiencies in population groups. That was until 1989, when the 10th edition of the RDAs was released by the National Academy of Sciences (Council, 1989 1201). This newest edition acknowledged for the first time that levels of a nutrient, specifically, vitamin C, may need to be higher than the RDA for groups at risk of developing chronic diseases, particularly smokers. This welcome recommendation by the National Academy of Sciences has opened the door for the use of an entirely different approach in determining the optimal levels of nutrients needed to minimize the risk of developing chronic diseases in various population groups. Yet even the RDAs noble attempt to suggest higher levels of vitamin C intake for smokers is inadequate. Studies of smokers have found that their blood levels of vitamins and minerals are also low in beta-carotene, zinc, vitamin B6 and vitamin E. Increasing evidence suggests that the reduced levels of these nutrients along with vitamin C may contribute to common health risks associated with smoking.

     Yet, the RDA fails to address the regular use of alcohol, which is another example of an addiction that increases nutrient requirements. Individuals who chronically consume alcohol have been found to have lower levels of folate, vitamin B1, vitamin B6, vitamin A, beta carotene, zinc and vitamin C.

     Lifestyles of individuals are also neglected in the RDAs. Dieters, for example, are a population who have frequently been found to have low nutrient status. Studies have shown that it is extremely difficult if not impossible to meet all the RDAs for nutrients, let alone maintain health, when consuming less than 1200 calories per day. Analyses of 11 major reducing diets showed that none could provide 100 percent of the RDAs for vitamins.

     In summary, individuals may have habits or lifestyles that require nutrient levels far in excess of that recommended by the RDAs. Chronic consumption of alcohol and a host of other habits, life style and environmental risks (e.g. carbon monoxide, lead, mercury) associated with our complex society, may at some point have to be addressed in future revisions of the RDAs.

     Of even greater significance is a growing body of evidence that indicates that intakes of certain vitamins and minerals above the RDAs may be necessary to protect against the development of certain chronic diseases. For example, antioxidants, such as vitamin C, beta-carotene, and vitamin E, may prevent the damage to vascular endothelial cells by free radicals associated with a common form of cardiovascular disease, atherosclerosis. These vitamins may be required in much higher amounts than the RDA to prevent atherosclerosis than needed to prevent deficiency symptoms. Unless, of course, the development of atherosclerosis is a deficiency symptom of these vitamins. The same might be true of many cancers, heart disease or eye diseases (e.g. macular degeneration or cataracts).

     There is also no claim by the National Academy of Sciences that the RDAs are intended as "ideal" daily intakes for the maintenance of optimal health. Yet, many people would like to know what the "optimum" intake of various nutrients should be to maintain health, or prevent the progression of a chronic disease.

     Through the effort of a 15 year study it is now possible to extrapolate suggested optimum daily nutrients allowances, or SONAs. These SONAs are levels of nutrients found in a study of 13,500 male and female subjects living in six regions of the United States conducted by senior investigators, Drs. Emanuel Cheraskin and W.M. Ringdorf, Jr., of the University of Alabama School of Medicine. The results of their two million dollar study are contained in 49,000 bound pages found in 153 volumes, whose results have been published in over 100 papers during the 1970's and 80's.

     In this university study, each subject has completed: (1) the 195-item Cornell Medical Index Health Questionaire (CMI) (2) a physical, anthropometric, dental and eye examines, by qualified medical specialists; (3) cardial function tests, including an electroencephalogram (EKG); (4) a glucose tolerance test (GTT); (5) a panel of 50 blood chemistries, and (6) a comprehensive study of their diet, including a food frequency and seven day dietary survey.

     This study attempted to find a truly "ideal" daily consumption of nutrients, carbohydrates, protein and fat, on the logical hypothesis that relatively symptomless and sign-less groups provides the basis for determining what should be the "ideal" daily nutrient level .

     This approach consistently revealed that the healthiest individuals, meaning those with the least clinical symptoms and signs, has consumed supplements and eaten a diet rich in nutrients relative to calories.

     Using this method, for example, it was discovered that the "healthiest" subjects had a mean vitamin C intake of 410 milligrams (mg) a day. What is particularly noteworthy about this level of vitamin C is that in a recent study of the diet of primitive man, published in the New England Journal of Medicine, it was found that our remote ancestors consumed 392 mg of vitamin C a day. The finding of 410 mg of vitamin C in "healthy" modern man, and 392 mg in primitive man, is only a difference of 4 per cent! Further evidence to date suggests that the incidence of cancer and other chronic diseases of modern civilization was rare in primitive man. Could the higher intake of vitamin C and other nutrients in primitive diets and their lower incidence of chronic degenerative diseases be related?

     Epidemiologic evidence of a protective effect of vitamin C for non-hormone-dependent cancers is strong, according to a 1991 National Cancer Institute report published in the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. (Block, 1991 1208). Of the 46 studies in which dietary vitamin C was calculated, 33 found statistically significant protection against cancer, with the highest intakes above the RDA conferring the highest protection. Of 29 additional studies that assessed fruit intake, 21 found significant protection. For cancers of the stomach, rectum, breast and cervix there is also strong evidence of a protective effect against cancer. Several recent lung cancer studies also found significant protective effects of vitamin C, therefore, the concept of an "ideal" or suggested optimum daily nutrient allowance (SONA) of 410 milligrams of vitamin C seems reasonable, even though it is several fold above the RDA level for vitamin C suggested to prevent scurvy.

     At present, the RDAs represent the nutritional equivalent of the minimum wage. Just like the minimum wage, they offer little hope of significantly improving the quality of your life. Clearly, there is a profound need for SONAs to supplement the outmoded RDAs. SONAs represent the first nutritional guidelines designed to maintain health over a life-time.

     The National Research Council of the USA and the UK Department of Health have made recommendations (RDAs) for the daily intake of nutrients. These have been chosen to meet the nutritional needs of populations of both sexes from weanling infants to senior citizens and are intended mainly for use by dietary professionals. Dr. Cheraskin and his colleagues at the University of Alabama Medical School, felt obliged to determine the SONAs that were equivalent to the RDAs to provide guidance for nutritionists and other professionals.

     The range of values needed to inform nutrition professionals can cause confusion to the average citizen who is concerned with knowing the nutritional requirements to achieve optimal health. It is inappropriate for a concerned mother to have to calculate the amounts of individual vitamins to give to the different members of her family. If she has a boy of 10, a girl of 18, a husband who is a heavy manual worker, an elderly mother-in-law and she herself works 8 hours paid in employment and 4 hours in the home, the calculations needed to meet the needs of every individual family member becomes horrendous.

     To insure that the nutritional needs of all the family are met, a well balanced diet is the most important single contribution to continued good health. However, as has been pointed out earlier, a diet balanced for every member of a family is often impractical. In order to obtain the SONAs for everybody it is prudent to increase the daily nutrient intake with a nutritional supplement as was done by the majority of the subjects in the SONA study. 

     The daily consumption of additional nutrients in the form of a supplement can serve to add those essential nutrients that may be below the SONA values or absent altogether. A high quality supplement containing all the essential vitamins and minerals in adequate amounts can insure that all meals are balanced meals as far as the essential nutrients are concerned. The SONAs in the 'SONA' have been carefully calculated to provide sufficient nutrient levels for all irrespective of age and lifestyle.

     Many of the supplements sold to the public are of poor quality. They may have levels of nutrients well below the RDAs and therefore well below the SONAs. Some may be of poor quality or in a form that cannot be absorbed and may contain toxic impurities or contaminants. Pharmaceutical medicines must be analyzed before being sold to make sure that the active principles are present but unscrupulous manufacturers of dietary supplements have been known to sell products deficient of the vitamins claimed on the label.

     The 'SONA' is the first supplement to include all the SONAs so far determined together with additional vitamins, minerals and other essential nutrients considered by nutritionists to be necessary in establishing and maintaining optimal health. 

     Despite working for more than fifteen years and producing more than 49,000 pages documenting their work, Prof. Cheraskin and his colleagues have only managed to calculate the SONAs for the major vitamins and minerals. The SONA values for the minor micro-nutrients such as PABA, chromium, molybdenum, vanadium and the antioxidant mineral selenium have yet to be established, but research carried out by other groups has estimated the amounts of these minor nutrients that may be needed for optimum health. The researchers who formulated the 'SONA' have included a number of these minor nutrients that may be deficient in the average diet to ensure that it represents the state-of-the-art in nutrition supplementation.

     The micro-nutrients, the vitamins and minerals, do not exist as pure chemicals in our food but are combined with other macro-nutrients in the diet such as proteins, amino-acids, fats or carbohydrates. The presence of these macro-nutrients ensure that the vitamins and minerals in the food can be effectively absorbed from the intestinal tract, reach the blood and are then distributed via the circulation to the organs and tissues where they are needed.

     The nutrient quality of food varies tremendously; some popular prepared foods are virtually devoid of the essential micro-nutrients. They may have been grown in soil in which the minerals have been depleted by intensive farming or the vitamins destroyed by bad storage or overcooking. In other foods, the levels of nutrients can reach extraordinary high concentrations that can be preserved carefully without the loss of their vital food factors. Some of these are described as Super foods because they are carefully prepared from green plants which are naturally well endowed with a range of essential vitamins, minerals and other essential nutrients some of which may confer benefits which are not yet fully recognised by scientists.

     Three highly nutritious, concentrated Green Super Foods; Alfalfa Leaf Powder, Green Barley Juice Powder and Spirulina are incorporated into the 'SONA'. They all have exceptionally high levels of the well recognized micro-nutrients together with additional nutritional factors in the form of amino acids, poly-unsaturated free fatty acids and rarer trace elements that are absent from many foods. They provide additional antioxidant support and work together to provide a nutritional balance that is greater than the sum of the individual SuperFoods. In addition to being a source of nutrients in their own right, they also combine with the added vitamins and minerals in the 'SONA' to insure that they are effectively absorbed from the digestive tract and reach the blood in a form that will be of maximum benefit.

     All the major Vitamins that have been the subject of the investigations in the SONA programme are included in the SONA. The minor vitamins Biotin and Pantothenic acid, for which no SONAs have yet been established are also included at the new EC RDA levels, as these are essential for optimal health.

     In the case of Vitamin A, a combination of the vitamin and its precursor beta-carotene is used. This is to insure an adequate supply of the antioxidant activity without including a level of vitamin A that might exceed accepted levels of safety. The vitamins used are all of the highest quality and are produced to recognized international standards of purity.

     Absorption of the vitamins from the digestive tract is guaranteed by the presence of the SuperFoods in the tablets. The absorption of vitamins is always helped by the presence of food and it is strongly recommended that the 'SONA' should be taken with food. It is not always possible to eat regularly but even if it is inconvenient to take the 'SONA' with a meal the presence of the Super Foods in the tablets will still permit adequate absorption of the vitamins.

     The essential minerals play a very important role in the body. They make it possible for muscles to contract, for the brain and the nervous system to work and also combine with amino acids to produce co-enzymes that control the many living processes such as energy production and growth. In nature, the minerals are rarely found alone but are bound as inorganic compounds in the earth, or in living creatures, with a variety of natural substances as organic complexes.

     Some of the common minerals such as sodium and potassium are termed mono-valent elements and may be present as simple salts such as chlorides, for example sodium chloride, common salt. Many of the other minerals such as calcium, zinc and magnesium are poly-valent elements and combine in more complex ways with other elements. Some of the essential poly-valent minerals are bound as inorganic or organic complexes, in many cases the vital mineral cannot be absorbed by the body from these complexes. A commonly occurring natural inorganic complex of calcium is calcium silicate, this is a constituent of rocks such as granite and however much of this you ate you would get none of the essential calcium. Zinc is present in bran but it is mostly present as a complex with phytic acid from which the zinc is only marginally available to the body.

     In the 'SONA', the poly-valent minerals are combined with amino acids by a process known as chelation. This produces the minerals in a form that mimics the form in which most minerals are found in food. Amino acid chelated minerals can therefore be more rapidly and efficiently absorbed from the digestive tract into the bloodstream than inorganic forms of minerals.

     Amino acids are made by the hydrolysis (breakdown) of plant protein. In addition to amino acids, the process of hydrolysis produces protein fragments that can cause allergic reactions in some people. If proteins are derived from wheat, yeast, maize or milk, the product may be allergenic. To provide the amino acids for the 'SONA', only rice protein is used. Rice is regarded by allergy specialists as being the least likely of all common grain proteins to provoke allergic reactions in sensitive individuals.

     To attain maximum absorption with optimal effect, minerals must be present in the correct ratios. An excess of one mineral can block the absorption of another mineral, for example, too much copper in the diet can depress the absorption of zinc from the intestine.

     In the wrong ratio, calcium and magnesium can also interfere with each others absorption. In the 'SONA', the amounts have been carefully calculated so that calcium and magnesium are present in a ratio of 1:1, which is recognized as the ideal ratio for optimal absorption.

     Some minerals such as potassium, phosphorus and sodium are not included in the 'SONA', as the typical diet is overabundant in these nutrients and the daily requirements would preclude adding nutritionally significant amounts in supplement form. For example, the RDA for potassium is 2000 mg per day, almost as much as the entire weight of a tablet of the 'SONA'.

The Green Super Foods in The 'SONA'

Alfalfa Leaf has long been recognized as a nutritious food source. Many green vegetables have a shallow root system that makes it difficult for them to absorb sufficient minerals, particularly if the soil is depleted; this also increases the chances of the plants absorbing toxic pollutants from the atmosphere. Alfalfa has a very deep root system that can penetrate the soil for over 30 m. This allows the plant to absorb minerals that may be absent from the surface layer of the soil insuring a good supply of the full range of trace minerals essential for a healthy plant. In addition to vitamins and minerals, Alfalfa Leaf is rich in enzymes that can aid digestion and the absorption and assimilation of the natural nutrients. 

Green Barley Juice is concentrated from the young shoots of organically grown barley. It is high in vitamins especially natural beta-carotene and minerals, chlorophyll and enzymes including SOD (Super Oxide Dismutase). SOD is an enzyme that the body uses to destroy cancer causing free radicals that can be caused by radiation, drugs and some foods.

Spirulina, a blue-green algae is the most highly regarded and nutritionally complete of all the edible algae. It is considered to be a complete food as its proteins contain all the essential amino acids necessary for life and all the essential vitamins are present in high concentrations. It has 25 times the level of beta-carotene found in carrots and also contains the essential amino acids including the uncommon fatty acid GLA, usually taken in the form of Evening Primrose Oil.

    Many enzymes and vitamins can be destroyed by heating, therefore, these three Superfoods are dried without heat to preserve their vital nutrients before they are incorporated into the 'SONA'.

     The enzymes in digestive juices break down carbohydrates, proteins and fats in foods into smaller units such as sugars, peptides and fatty acids that can then be readily absorbed. Without the presence of enzymes in the intestinal tract, food could not be digested and the result would be starvation. As we age, the levels of enzymes in the digestive juices fall and the digestive process becomes less efficient. Similiar enzyme deficiencies are found in many mild digestive upsets. It has long been known that taking enzymes that aid digestion can improve the absorption of essential nutrients. To make sure that the full range of nutrients in the 'SONA' are made available for absorption, four types of plant enzymes have been added to the formula.

     Protease is an enzyme that breaks down proteins into smaller units called peptides, made up of a number of individual amino acids. The peptides are in turn broken down to the basic building blocks of proteins, the amino acids. Both peptides and amino acids can be absorbed from the intestine from where they are then transported to the liver. There they are rebuilt to form proteins used to build new tissues and replace ones that are worn out or damaged. Amino acids are also used to build hormones that control many bodily processes and messenger chemicals that transmit information within the brain and nervous system. 

     Amylase breaks down insoluble complex starches from vegetable materials in the food to simple sugars like glucose that can then be absorbed. The sugars produced are used by the body as the primary source of energy and may also be combined with proteins to produce glyco-proteins which are built up into the connective tissues that hold the body together and line the organs such as the lungs and intestines.

     Lipase is the fat digesting enzyme that is essential for the digestion of fat. The fatty acids that are released from fats are transported to the liver to be reformed into storage fats or built into the cell membranes of virtually all tissues. The brain and nervous system is largely made from fats. Some fatty acids are chemically changed into hormones such as prostaglandins that are essential for reproduction.

     Cellulase is an enzyme that breaks down the cellulose walls of plant cells. This allows the nutrients within the cells to be released and absorbed and it also converts the indigestible cellulose into sugars that can be a source of energy. 

     These four enzymes make it possible for all the nutrient goodness of the Green SuperFoods, minerals and vitamins in the 'SONA' to be fully utilized by the body. 

     After careful consideration of all the factors, Phoenix Nutrition chose to produce the 'SONA' in tablet from rather than as gelatin capsules. Tablets can be made more stable and are not affected by high temperatures and humidity, which occurs in many countries and can cause gelatin capsules to soften and leak. 

     Some methods of making tablets cause the temperature of the ingredients to rise to a level that can destroy the enzymes and some of the vitamins. Those in the Green SuperFoods are particularly at risk from heat damage. All the advanced research that has gone into producing the 'SONA' would be wasted if the sensitive ingredients were destroyed in producing the tablets. To insure that the nutrients in the 'SONA' are presented in the best possible way and with the maximum protection for the heat sensitive ingredients, the tablets for the 'SONA' are made using a unique, state-of-the-art process known as high-density Chilsonation. In this process, the ingredients are compressed without the use of heat or potentially toxic solvents.

     Without further protection, some of the nutrients could be damaged by exposure to the atmosphere. This can reduce their activity and allow oxidation which may cause some of the ingredients to be chemically altered to produce undesirable and potentially harmful breakdown products such as free radicals. After Chilsonation, the tablets are coated with a protective layer. This coating, known as VegiCote, is made from a special vegetable cellulose complex and purified water. No organic solvents are used at all. Thus, the coating is hypoallergenic and free from chemicals or sugar that can cause allergies in sensitive people. In addition to its protective action, the VegiCote process gives the tablets an added advantage in that the smooth finish makes them easier to swallow than conventional tablets. 

     To add a further degree of protection every bottle of the 'SONA' contains a small package of desiccant. This absorbs any moisture that may enter the bottle during manufacturing and prevents deterioration of the tablets.

Composition of The 'SONA'

     All the ingredients in the 'SONA' are of natural origin and of the highest quality. It is free from contaminants frequently identified in cheap supplements. Allergies to food and environmental factors appear to be increasing with the change to urban living and our reliance on processed food and artificial ingredients. It is impossible to produce a nutritional supplement that is 100% free of all potential allergic substances (allergens) but in the 'SONA' all common potential allergens have been avoided.

     Artificial colours, flavours and preservatives which frequently induce allergic reactions are absent from the 'SONA'. Although yeast is a particularly good and cheap source of many vitamins and minerals it often causes allergic reactions in some people, therefore, no yeast products are included. Other common allergens that have been omitted from the 'SONA' are wheat, gluten, lactose and milk products. Starch, sugar and salt are also excluded.

     After swallowing the 'SONA' tablets, preferably with a drink, the tablets reach the stomach and are exposed to the digestive juices where the VegiCote coating dissolves. This allows the active nutrients to be passed down the digestive tract where they are smoothly and rapidly absorbed into the blood stream and are then distributed to the vital tissues and organs to exert their maximum beneficial effects.

     Scientific calculations have shown that the amounts of nutrients and super foods needed to insure the optimal nutrient allowance (SONA) for all the essential nutrients are too great to be incorporated into a single tablet or capsule. With the 'SONA' the nutrients are incorporated into three tablets. To ensure optimal absorption and a beneficial effect over the whole day, it is recommended that one tablet should be taken three times per day with meals. Taking the 'SONA' with meals provides sufficient of the essential nutrients to give the meal the balance of nutrients that is recommended by nutritionists worldwide. Thus taking the 'SONA' with meals can insure that every meal is a balanced meal.

     The SONA study showed that those participants that were shown to be the healthiest regularly took nutritional supplements and had been taking them for many years. To be sure of obtaining the maximum health benefits from the 'SONA' it is advisable to take it regularly 3 times a day with meals.

     While there is yet no proof, it is the opinion of many researchers that the nutrients, and particularly the antioxidants in the 'SONA', when taken regularly, may slow down the aging process. They may also lead to a reduction of the incidence and severity of those diseases such as arthritis and circulatory diseases that are associated with increasing age. Throughout the world there is an ever increasing demand for health care, most of this demand is for improved medical and surgical services to treat diseases. As the standards of living rise, so does the demand for health care, much of this is for the treatment of the very diseases that result from improved standards of living. These diseases are sometimes called "the diseases of affluenece" as their incidence increases with increasing prosperity and is linked to diet and lifestyle. They include cancer, cardio-vascular disease, asthma, allergies, arthritis and mental disorders. The majority of these diseases cannot be cured and most medical treatment is directed toward alleviating their symptoms.

     It is said that "an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure". As deficient diets are a major factor in many of these diseases, an improvement in the nutritional status of the diet can be expected to help prevent them. This was confirmed by the SONA study.

     The potential health benefits of the individual vitamins, minerals and other constituents of the 'SONA' have been referred to earlier. There is good medical evidence to suggest that a combination of the various nutrients are more effective than when the individual nutrients are given alone. This effect is known as synergy and the combination of nutrients in the 'SONA' provides this synergy.

     This effect is known to be particularly important for the antioxidant vitamins. In a study on 50,000 nurses, a combination of a high intake of Beta Carotene combined with vitamin C supplements was shown to protect them against developing the dangerous eye condition, cataract, better than either vitamin alone.

     Vitamins E and C work together in the body. When the antioxidant effect of vitamin E becomes exhausted, vitamin C can regenerate it and allow it to continue working. In a study of 6,000 middle aged men in Edinburgh, the incidence of angina was related to the levels of vitamin C and E in the blood. Angina causes chest pains upon exertion and is an indication of poor circulation to the heart muscle and shows that the patient is at risk for having a heart attack. In this study researchers found that the men with the highest levels of these vitamins had the lowest incidence of angina and were at the least risk from heart attacks.

     Minerals and vitamins also work together. Selenium has antioxidant properties and works with vitamin E to protect the essential fatty acids, like GLA in Evening Primrose Oil, from attack by oxygen which can lead to the production of harmful breakdown products.

     Some forms of cancer are likely to be caused by free radicals and oxidative stress, and if the effects of these are reduced, these cancers may be prevented. A large study in Finland showed that the low levels of Vitamin E in the blood led to a doubling of the risk of cancer when compared with those individuals who had higher levels of this vitamin.

     A major study in Linxian, China, carried out with the collaboration of US doctors, found that giving a vitamin supplement of vitamins A, B, C, E and Beta carotene together with the minerals molybdenum, zinc and selenium reduced the incidence of cancer deaths by 13% and those from stomach cancer by 21%. The amounts of the nutrients used in this study were generally higher than the RDAs and similar to those found in the 'SONA'.

     The immune system is responsible for protecting the body against invasion by foreign organisms such as bacteria and viruses. If this system is impaired in any way the disease organisms can multiply and cause diseases ranging in severity from the common cold to AIDS.

      In a recently published study from Canada, a multivitamin and mineral supplement was compared with an inactive dummy in a group of 96 healthy individuals. Their immune status was determined and their health closely monitored. The results showed that those subjects who were given the supplement had a more active immune system and that the incidence of infectious illnesses and the days off work were more than halved when compared with those given the dummy tablets.

     There is also mounting evidence that supplementing the diet of patients with AIDS with vitamins and minerals can improve their quality of life and in some cases allow them to live considerably longer than would normally be expected.

     Asthma is a respiratory disease that has doubled in numbers over the past twenty years. The common belief is that this is due to an increase in atmospheric pollution but in fact air pollution has decreased over this period. A recent suggestion from a leading physician in the U.K. has suggested that the resistance of the population to disease may be the cause of the rise in asthma. He has suggested that the reduction in the intake of Beta Carotene and vitamin C may be an important factor in the rise of this crippling and frequently fatal disease.

     Many scientists are convinced that even with the best efforts of governments, the levels of chemical and radio-active pollution that the population will be exposed to will increase. With this increase will come a greater threat to the health of us all. One simple precaution that we all can take is for us to make sure that we take sufficient of the pollution protecting antioxidants in our diet. Taking the 'SONA' daily along with OMEGA 3 and OMEGA 6 essential fatty acids will achieve this. See pages 129-141 for a fuller description of essential fatty acids.

     These are just a few examples of the evidence that is accumulating to show that regular supplementation of the diet with vitamins, minerals and essential fatty acids as in the 'SONA' and 'OMEGA 3-6' may play a significant role in the prevention of many common diseases.

     There are major benefits to the individual and to society in reducing the incidence of the major diseases cited above (see chart on inside back cover). Supplementing the average person's normal diet on a regular basis with the 'SONA' and 'OMEGA 3-6' could produce profound benefits both to the health of a nation and its individual citizens.

C. THE NUTRIENT GROUPS

1. INTRODUCTION

     Most of the molecules our foods and our cells contain belong to one of three major nutrient groups: carbohydrates, lipids (fats, oils, cholesterol), and proteins. 

     A minor but equally important nutrient group present in our foods and our cells is the nucleic acids. Essential nutrients that must be provided by foods or by supplements include vitamins, minerals (and elements), essential fatty acids, and essential amino acids.  

     Carbohydrates, fats, oils, and amino acids can serve as fuel "burned" by the body to provide energy (calories) for muscular work, body heat, cell building, and biochemical processes. 

     Fats and oils are also used to build the membranes which surround our cells. Fats and oils (mostly oils) provide 2 essential fatty acids, nutrients that the body cannot make, requires for health, and must obtain from foods or from supplements. Essential fatty acids are precursors of hormone-like prostaglandins. 

     Cholesterol is used to stabilize cell membranes and to protect skin, and is also the material from which the body makes Vitamin D, male and female hormone, the stress hormone cortisone, and hormones that regulate kidney function.

     Proteins, the sources of amino acids, provide building materials for enzymes, structural proteins, and antibodies. Proteins also provide 8 essential amino acids, nutrients the body cannot make, requires for health, and must obtain from foods or from supplements. Children require 10 essential amino acids for health, and premature babies require 11 amino acids to be present in their food supply in order to survive and thrive.

     Nucleic acids provide nucleotides, building materials for the production of each body’s unique genetic material (DNA) and its blueprint from which cells make proteins (RNA). Nucleic acids are also enzyme co-factors in energy-producing reactions, and energy storage molecules.

     Minerals (and elements) are essential catalysts and co-factors for the functions of enzymes, which allow biochemical reactions necessary to life to take place, reactions which would be impossible without them. Catalytic functions of minerals often depend on their electrical properties, their ability to take up or give off electrons. Minerals cannot be made by the human body, and must therefore be provided by foods or by supplements. Human beings require 22 or 23 minerals and elements for health.

Vitamins are essential co-factors in biochemical reactions, providing three-dimensional keys with electrical properties that are just precisely necessary for these reactions. About 13 vitamins are essential to humans. They are required for health, cannot be made in the body, and must come from foods or from supplements.

CHART B-1

Energy production

     The body obtains its energy by "burning" (or oxidizing) nutrients present within each cell. We measure the energy made available by this process in calories. Oxidation of 1 gram of carbohydrates produces 4 calories. 1 gram of protein (or amino acids) also produces 4 calories. 1 gram of fat produces 9 calories. 1 gram of alcohol produces 7 calories. 

     The body prefers to use carbohydrates for fuel, because carbohydrates are "clean" fuel. When they "burn", they are converted into water, carbon dioxide and energy, leaving no "smoke" or residue. 

     The body uses proteins and fats for fuel only when its supply of carbohydrates falls short, or if its supply of fats and protein is excessive. When the body burns proteins for energy, the toxic substance ammonia is generated in addition to water and carbon dioxide. Ammonia burdens the liver and other inner organs. When the body burns fats for energy, toxic ketones are produced in addition to water and carbon dioxide. Ketones burden the kidneys and other inner organs. The practical importance of this information is that for best health, we should eat enough protein (12 - 15%) and fats (15 - 20%) to build, maintain, and repair cell structures, and consume complex carbohydrate for energy production (65 - 75%). We want a strong engine (cells) using clean-burning fuel.

     Physiological processes occur only if the required energy is available. For instance, a molecule of the digestive enzyme pepsin can be made only if, besides amino acids building materials, the energy needed to link them together is available. 

     Energy is required in physiological processes such as the contraction of heart muscle, muscular activity, brain function, nerve conduction, cell division, and for thousands of other processes that continually take place in cells, tissues and organs. Energy is also required for all activities of the organism: breathing, sensing, thinking, feeling and acting. 

     When more fuel is available than the body can use for its normal functions, it can burn this extra fuel by increasing body heat. This reaction explains why some people experience "night sweats" when they sleep on a full stomach from eating too late in the evening. 

     Another way in which the body deals with excess fuel — from excess carbohydrates, proteins, or fats — is to turn the excess energy into fats and cholesterol, and to store these lipids, in the hope to need them for energy at a later date. If we continually consume more calories than the body can use for its normal functions, the excess is turned into fats and cholesterol, and obesity with all of its detrimental effects on health results.

Interconvertibility

     Using specific enzymes, the cells can change amino acids to other non-essential amino acids or to carbohydrates, or can oxidize them to produce energy.

     The body can convert carbohydrates into lipids. This is why excess sugar consumption leads to fat deposition. Carbohydrates can also be converted into the "backbones" for amino acids.

     Fats, on the other hand, cannot be turned into sugars again, nor into amino acids or nucleic acids. To get rid of them, the body must burn them for energy.

     Amino acids and carbohydrates can be used to construct purines and pyrimidines — components of the building blocks for DNA (genetic material) and RNA (its blueprint for making proteins).

     This rearrangement of molecular structures is basic to physiology.

     The four food groups — milk, meat, vegetables and cereals - represent sources of the major nutrients. While it is not necessarily important to eat from the four groups, it is important to get a proper and adequate balance of all essential nutrients. Thus, it is possible to get a day’s requirement of protein eating solely from the cereal group, but meat and milk are far superior sources of protein (please refer to Chart B-1).

2. CARBOHYDRATES

     Carbohydrates form the main source of calories in the diet of all people. Composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, carbohydrates include simple sugars and combinations of simple sugars such as starch and glycogen. Non-digestible, bulk- providing fibers are also carbohydrates, but the human body lacks the enzymes necessary to turn these fibers into simple sugars.

     The simple sugars in our diet include glucose, fructose and galactose. The sugars sucrose (cane and beet sugar, honey, maple sugar), lactose (milk sugar) and maltose (malt sugar) are combinations of two simple sugars. Sucrose = glucose + fructose; lactose = glucose + galactose; and maltose = glucose + glucose.

     Many glucose molecules hooked together (polymers), which can vary in size from a few glucose units (malts, dextrans) to thousands of glucose units (starch, glycogen, cellulose), are also important in nutrition.

     Those which the human body can digest (starch and glycogen) are important sources of energy. Indigestible forms such as cellulose pass through the intestinal tract undigested, but provide bulk or "roughage", which prevents constipation, keeps the intestinal tract from developing toxic materials, keeps digestive tract contents moving (enhances peristaltic activity), and keeps our bowls clean and healthy.

     Glycogen, a carbohydrate known as "animal starch", is made and stored in our liver and skeletal muscles as a source of readily available energy to draw on during prolonged physical activity.

     Glucose is the body’s most important energy-providing molecule — clean-burning fuel for all life functions that require energy, from molecular biochemistry to athletic activities and performances.

     The blood continuously delivers glucose to all tissues. The brain uses glucose almost exclusively for its energy requirements. It cannot burn fats or proteins. A brain shortage of glucose results in the behavioral symptoms of low blood sugar (hypoglycemia), which are really symptoms of low brain sugar.

Glucose and insulin

     The hormone insulin regulates the metabolism of glucose, starch, glycogen, sucrose, lactose and maltose — the digestible carbohydrates that contain glucose.

     Insulin increases the rate at which glucose is transferred from the blood into cells. Through this action, insulin regulates all processes in which glucose plays a part. Insulin requires the minerals chromium and zinc to fulfill its functions. Zinc and chromium deficiency make insulin action inefficient, resulting in chronic high blood sugar (hyperglycemia) — diabetes.

     Sugars such as fructose do not need insulin for transport into cells, nor for the initial steps of their metabolism. These sugars may be preferable to glucose for certain purposes, although they have problems of their own.

3. LIPIDS

     Lipids (fats, oils, sterols, and prostaglandins), like carbohydrates, are composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Lecithins (phosphatides), which are also lipids, also contain phosphorus. Lipids store energy in its most concentrated form. 

     Lipids carry the fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E and K, and make their absorption into the body possible. A shortage of fats and oils in the diet prevents the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins, results in deficiency of oil-soluble vitamins in the body, and brings about health problems associated with deficiency of these essential nutrients.

     Dietary lipids also provide building blocks which the body requires to build membranes and other cell structures, and to make hormone-like regulating substances known as prostaglandins. 

     Fats and oils are made from a glycerol molecule to which are attached three free-swinging fatty acids. The latter determine the properties of fats and oils. Fatty acids acid chains may be from 4 to 24 carbons long, and may have zero (saturated), one (mono-unsaturated), or 2 to 6 (polyunsaturated) double bonds in the chain. At room temperature, long-chained and/or saturated fatty acids are usually solid, while short-chained and/or unsaturated fatty acids are liquid. Double bonds make fatty acids reactive, increasing metabolic rate as well as decreasing shelf stability. The more double bonds, the more active the fatty acid, and the more powerful its effects in the body. Unfortunately, double bonds also make fatty acids more sensitive to destruction by light, oxygen, and heat. 

     Many fatty acids can be synthesized in the body from dietary lipids, excess carbohydrates or excess proteins, but two fatty acids cannot be so produced. These two are known as essential fatty acids: linoleic (Omega 6; polyunsaturated) acid and alpha-linolenic (Omega 3; super-unsaturated) acid. 

Note: Some manufacturers of nutritional supplements market essential fatty acids supplements as containing omega 3, 6 and 9 fatty acids. Omega 9 is oleic acid and is non-essential in humans. Virtually all vegetable oils contain oleic acid in varying degrees and there is no known deficiency in humans. In fact, it has been shown that excessive oleic acid along with increased copper to zinc ratio can inhibit linoleic acid and gamma linolenic acid metabolism with predictable long-term clinical consequences⁽¹⁾. It is misleading and unethical to market essential fatty acid supplements that draw attention to Omega 9 (oleic acid) has having nutritional significance, and by inference, superior to those formulas that do not show the oleic acid content.

(1) Holman R.T. Essential Fatty Acids and Prostaglandins. Progress in Lipid Research, Volume 20, 1981, pp 601-603. Pergamon Press

     Like vitamins, essential fatty acids are required for normal health, and must be provided by foods or by supplements.

     Deficiency of essential fatty acids leads to serious symptoms of degeneration in every cell, and prolonged deficiency ends in death.

     Essential fatty acids serve as starting material for derivatives that a healthy body can make from them. These derivatives, in turn, are precursors of powerful hormone-like substances known as prostaglandins. Minute quantities of these regulate the activities of most cells and tissues.

     Prostaglandins regulate platelet stickiness, blood pressure, tissue inflammation, kidney function, immune response, and other vital functions. Essential fatty acid deficiency, excessive intake of sugar, non-essential fats, cholesterol, and processed (hydrogenated) oils, or deficiency of mineral and vitamin co-factors can interfere with prostaglandin production and function, and lead to impaired cardiovascular, immune, liver, kidney, gland, joint, and brain function. The symptoms of defective prostaglandin function are far-reaching.

     Essential fatty acids are described in more detail in the section on essential nutrients. 

     Sterols, another class of lipids, are not essential in the sense that the body can make them from other substances, but they are necessary for life due to their cell membrane and hormonal activities. Cholesterol, the most important of the sterols, is present in foods derived from animals.

     Cholesterol has attracted more negative than positive press. Its contributions to health include its stabilization of the membranes that surround each cell, and its functions in the production of stress (adrenal) hormones, male and female sex hormones, Vitamin D, and skin protection.

     Excess dietary fats (especially saturated) and cholesterol can have negative effects on health, cardiovascular disease being the most serious. Obesity, fatty degeneration of inner organs, and breast, stomach, and colon cancer are also associated with high intake of dietary fats and cholesterol.

4. PROTEINS

     Proteins are made from building blocks known as amino acids. The most complex of the major nutrients, proteins are composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sulphur. Twenty-two amino acids, linked together in chains of varying lengths and sequences, account for an almost endless range of possible structures and functions. For instances, the hormone insulin and fingernails are both proteins made of the same 22 amino acids, but they differ so vastly in form and activity that their protein kinship is unrecognizable.

     After water, which makes up about 70% of body weight, protein is the most abundant material in the human body. It constitutes over 50% of the body's dry weight, or 15% of its total weight.

     The human body makes over 100,000 different proteins, with widely varying shapes and functions. Some provide structure (bone). Others carry out complex biochemical reactions (enzymes). Still others prevent and combat infection and disease (antibodies). Others are hormones with regulating functions over metabolic processes (insulin). Yet others provide ornamental value (hair, nails). Others provide protective covering (skin). Others contract, to make movement possible (muscle).

Building blocks

     Dietary protein also provides amino acids, the "building blocks" for the unique proteins that the body produces. Of the 22 amino acids found in nature, only 8 (10 for children) must be provided by foods, because our body cannot make these 8 or 10 from other substances in quantities sufficient for our requirements. These 8 (10) amino acids are called essential amino acids. The other amino acids, known as non-essential amino acids, can be produced by the body, and therefore it is not necessary that our foods provide them. Note that "essential" and "non-essential" relate only to whether they must be present in the foods we eat, not to the relative importance of each individual amino acid. Essential and non-essential amino acids are listed in Chart B-2.

     During protein synthesis within cells, free amino acids are linked in specific sequences to form thousands of proteins unique to human physiology and, more precisely, to each individual's unique genetic make-up. The body's free amino acid "pool" must therefore contain all amino acids necessary to build each particular protein.

CHART B-2

     Non-essential amino acids may originate either from digested dietary protein or from synthesis within the body. Essential amino acids must come from digested food proteins.

     If a diet is lacking one essential amino acid, the body makes less of the protein which requires this essential amino acid. Just as a chain is only as strong as its weakest link, so a protein is only as abundant as its least abundant essential amino acid.

     During periods of stress, illness, or intense physical activity, the body may not make enough non-essential acids to meet its demands. It then depends more heavily on dietary sources of these amino acids.

Nutritional Efficiency of Proteins

     The nutritional value of a dietary protein is a measure of how adequately a protein supplies amino acids necessary to maintain positive nitrogen balance in humans. This value is now referred to as the "Protein Digestibility Corrected Amino Acid Score" (P.D.C.A.A.S.). This is the method now adopted by the World Health Organization, the US FDA, and countries belonging to the United Nations. Proteins that completely satisfy the amino acid requirements for pre-school and school age children and for adults are assigned the value of 1, the highest possible score. Milk, egg and isolated soy protein are examples of complete proteins that are assigned the value of 1. Beef and Chicken, on the other hand, have values of about .89.

In the past, the measure of a protein's nutritional value was referred to as its Protein Efficiency Ratio (PER). The PER was based on the  protein requirements of weanling rats and was the standard promoted by the dairy industry as milk protein fulfilled the amino requirements of weanling rats. Vegetable proteins would not completely meet the amino acid requirements of weanling rats and were assigned a lower PER and therefore mistakenly thought to be "inferior" to milk proteins. Interestingly, human milk scored an even lower PER then most vegetable proteins when it came to meeting the nutritional requirements of weanling rats, and by inference would not be adequate for human needs. This is of course a false assumption. It seems that few questioned the cows sole protein intake after weanling was from plant protein and that young cows would grow to become large and powerful animals solely on plant protein.

In the past it was thought that plant proteins were incomplete proteins and that it was necessary to combine different plant proteins so that the combined amino acid profile was closer to that of milk protein. Again, this erroneous assumption was based on the weanling rats protein requirements that is very different from the human. It is now generally accepted that a balanced vegan diet can totally meet the nutritional requirements of humans.

Nitrogen Balance

     Dietary protein is important for nitrogen balance. Nitrogen balance, a measure of whether the body is building up or deteriorating, is the result of the continual entry and loss of nitrogen-containing amino acids in and out of the body. (Nitrogen in the air is inert and therefore plays no part in this discussion).

     Nitrogen is necessary for the synthesis of many important substances in the body, including the non-essential amino acids necessary for making proteins, the nucleotides (purines and pyrimidines) from which genetic material and energy-carrying ATP are made, creatine, the vitamin nicotinic acid, and the poly-amines. A daily intake of protein is required to provide the nitrogen necessary for all of the nitrogen-containing molecules.

     Certain amino acids have profound individual effects in addition to their function as protein building blocks. This emerging area of nutritional research has applications in treating:

• food and chemical allergies;

• central nervous system disorders;

• sleep disorders;

• depression;

• alcoholism;

and in helping improve:

• immune function;

• anti-oxidant protection;

• nerve and heart membrane stability;

• efficiency of fat metabolism;

• muscle mass; and

• endurance.

More information on this topic is found in section II. ESSENTIAL NUTRIENTS under AMINO ACIDS.

5. NUCLEIC ACIDS

     The nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) contained in foods are broken down into basic units called nucleotides, which are the building blocks the body uses to make our own unique nucleic acid molecules, the genetic material (DNA) and its blueprint (RNA) for protein production. Nucleotides are made of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus.

     Nucleotides are also co-factors in energy-producing reactions in the body. One such co-factor, NAD (nicotine adenine dinucleotide), is a B-vitamin (nicotinic acid or Vitamin B-3) nucleotide molecule required in fatty acid synthesis, amino acid synthesis, energy production (via the Krebs cycle), fatty acid breakdown, and carbohydrate synthesis.

     Adenine and guanine nucleotides are also used as high energy carriers, available for biochemical reactions throughout the body.

II. ESSENTIAL NUTRIENTS

A. (ESSENTIAL) VITAMINS

Introduction

     Vitamins are organic compounds that are essential for health, and that are needed in very small amounts by the body. They must be provided in the diet because, like essential amino acids and essential fatty acids, they cannot be synthesized in the body. They perform at least one specific metabolic function in the body. Vitamins are necessary co-factors in virtually all biochemical processes of the body. Foods or food supplements must supply vitamins in quantities sufficient for meeting metabolic demands and, hopefully, in amounts that support optimum biochemical functioning of all cells and tissues, which results in optimum health.

     Vitamins are necessary for the normal physiological functions of the body, serving as co-factors or catalysts in many metabolic activities which are vital to life and to health.

     Vitamin deficiencies result in well defined deficiency symptoms. Sub-optimal supply of vitamins may produce vague and undefined symptoms.

     Vitamins belong to two groups, according to their special properties. 

     The fat-soluble Vitamins A, D, E, and K, are transported by lipids, and their absorption is affected by the digestion and absorption of dietary fats and oils. Storage of fat soluble vitamins is quite efficient, and physiological utilization is virtually the only means of their depletion. This group of vitamins is generally measured in International Units (IU), which represent quantities necessary to effect a specific physiological alteration in the health of a laboratory animal. Fat-soluble vitamins are measured in International Units (IU).

     The water-soluble vitamins, which include the Vitamin B-complex and Vitamin C (ascorbic acid), are not stored in appreciable quantities. Due to their high solubility in water, they are lost in urine and perspiration during normal physiological processes. As a result, daily consumption of water-soluble vitamins is required to ensure that they are present in our tissues. The continuous biochemical activities in which they are involved require their continuous presence.

     We measure water-soluble vitamins by weight, in milligrams (mg — thousandths of a gram) or micrograms (µg — millionths of a gram).

     What quantities of vitamins should be consumed on a daily basis continues to be a topic of hot debate. Experts in the nutritional field agree that individuals differ in their vitamin requirements. No single quantity of a particular vitamin is suitable for the entire population.

     Recommended Daily Allowances (RDAs) are statistics of average intake set by government committee. RDAs are the quantities that should keep an average, healthy adult (undefined!) doing an average amount of physical activity in an average environment from developing deficiency symptoms. RDAs do not consider genetic differences, age, pregnancy, growth, stress, convalescence, or athletic activity. RDAs could be looked upon as a minimal level necessary to maintain health.

     Another measure, the Suggested Optimum Nutritional Allowances (SONAs) are under consideration by the U.S. government. These are averages for optimum levels of health. Being higher than the RDAs, SONAs hold the promise of better health for many people.

     Due to differences in inheritance, life style (food habits and activity levels), stage of life cycle, stress level, and environmental factors, optimum intake of vitamins will vary for each individual with time. These factors necessitate a wide range of vitamin intakes to adequately provide for the nutritional well being of the entire population.

1. Vitamin A (Beta-Carotene, Retinol)

General - oil-soluble; anti-xerophthalmic factor;

• retinol (true Vitamin A) - found in animal tissues;

• beta-carotene (pro-vitamin A) - yellow-orange pigment of plants;

• conversion of beta-carotene to Vitamin A in animal tissues takes 6 to 7 hours, & occurs only according to need, making carotene non-toxic;

• history: identified in 1913; structure defined in 1931 (Karrer) for Nobel Prize; synthesis 1946; identified as major source of infant mortality in Indonesia 1984;

• sources: Vitamin A: liver, egg yolk, fish (esp. fish liver oils), dairy cream, & other animal products; lemon grass; beta carotene: carrots, yams, squash, apricots, red & dark green vegetables; supplements: A + D, beta carotene, multi-vitamin, multimineral- vitamin formulations;
• absorption from upper small intestine, along with fats, takes about 3 to 5 hours;- Vitamin A absorption is 2 to 4x more efficient than that of beta carotene, independent of amount present; toxicity possible for Vitamin A;- 10 to 50% of carotene is absorbed; absorption decreases if more is present in body;
• improved by: edible fats & oils; taking with meals; Vitamin E; bile salts;
• antagonized by: excess protein, alcohol, or iron; mineral oil; intense physical activity within 4 hours of ingestion; inflammatory bowel disease;
• stability: Vit A is destroyed by oxygen in the presence of sunlight ; protected by Vitamin E; carotene is stable during cooking, but also sensitive to oxygen & light; freezing protects Vit A and carotene from deterioration;
• storage: 90% of Vitamin A in liver (1 to 2 years’ supply = 500,000 IU); high concentrations in kidneys & lungs; some present in all cells; carotene stored in liver, fat tissue, & skin;
• antagonized by: cirrhosis & liver degeneration;
• excretion: through bile, through urine, & broken down in metabolism;
• metabolism: adequate protein & zinc required to release Vitamin A from liver; hydrogenation destroys Vit. A & carotenes;
• interactions: oral contraceptives;

• necessary for health of all cells;

• involved in vision, smell, hearing, taste, growth, bone development, cell differentiation, & reproduction;

• required for protein synthesis, RNA synthesis, cell division, cell membrane stability, production of light-sensitive visual pigments, mucus production, sexual & reproductive processes, sperm production, egg development, functions of adrenal & thyroid glands (metabolic rate, energy level, body temperature, growth rate), skin integrity, functions of inner lining of digestive tract, bone development & remodeling, liver function;

• protects against infections in nose, throat, lungs, digestive tract, urinary tract;

• involved in wound healing;

• beta carotene (anti-oxidant) traps free radicals, protecting against damage from pollution & cigarette smoke; quenches singlet oxygen; protects skin from UV sunlight damage;

• functions antagonized by: low thyroid may result in Vitamin A depletion, by slowing down conversion of beta-carotene; diabetes also interferes with conversion;

• measurement: 1,000,000 micrograms (µg) = 1,000 milligrams (mg) = 1 gram (g);
• 1 µg of retinol (Vit. A) = 1 retinol equivalent (RE), (new international standard);
• 1 RE = 1 µg = 3.3 IU = 6 µg beta-carotene = 12 µg other provitamin A carotenoids;
• optimum (SONA) average ranges from 800 to 2,000 µg /day for Vit. A, and 5 to 10 mg/day of beta-carotene;
• individual optimum must be determined for each individual case; depends on nutritional status, & body’s need;
• minimum (EC RDA) set at 800 µg (2667 I.U.) /day, no RDA set for beta-carotene, but suggested intake is 6 to 10 mg/day, or more;
• less than RDA: 50% of population, according to a U. S. government survey;
• deficiency of Vitamin A results from lack in diet, poor absorption (inflammatory bowel disease, sprue, infection, parasites, diseases), mineral oil, excess or deficiency of protein, excess alcohol & iron, strenuous physical activity within 4 hours of a meal); inefficient conversion (thyroid deficiency, diabetes), or impaired storage (degenerative liver disease, cirrhosis, jaundice); cystic fibrosis; deficiency of fat (also protein) in diet; smoking; environmental pollution; increased need during pregnancy & lactation;
• symptoms include: dry skin; lackluster hair; dandruff; "goosey", bumpy hair follicles, esp. back of arms; poor nails; loss of sense of smell; softening of bones and teeth; drying & thickening of cornea (xerophthalmia); night blindness; blindness; stunted growth in children due to impaired hormone, membrane, & skeleton biochemistry; increased cell membrane permeability; skin & mucous membrane infections; respiratory disease; diarrhea; parasitic & infectious diseases; reduced level of white blood cells; senility from oxidative damage to brain tissues; psoriasis; birth defects (cleft palate, congenital eye & heart defects); calcium phosphate kidney stones; pre-cancerous changes in epithelial tissues of skin & lining of digestive tract (site of 50% of cancers); immune deficiency; cancer;
• toxicity from intake of Vitamin A is unusual; requires more than 10 times RDA;
• beta-carotene produces orange-colored skin, but is 100% non-toxic;
• Vitamin A toxicity requires more than 50,000 IU/day over an extended time;
• Vitamin A toxicity: enlargement of liver & spleen; lethargy; headache, nausea, abdominal pain, diarrhea; hair loss, dry skin; menstruation stops; bone resorption;
• in infants: scaly dermatitis, weight loss, anorexia, skeletal pain;
• toxicity reversed by: stopping intake; recovery rapid & complete, often within 72 hours of stopping;

• usual therapeutic dose is 5,000 to 25,000 IU/day;
• glaucoma, conjunctivitis, nearsightedness, crossed eyes, Betot spots (raised white patches of the white of the eyes);
• 10,000 IU of Vitamin A plus 400 mg of Vitamin B-2 may help reverse cataracts;
• tinnitus; migraine headaches;
• 100,000 IU of Vitamin A over 4 to 6 months lower high cholesterol, but do not alter normal cholesterol levels;
• protection against carcinogenic agents; enhanced immunity;
• helps treat acne & its lesions, psoriasis, dandruff, bedsores, burns, warts, eczema;
• bronchial asthma, rhinitis, emphysema; nephritis; cirrhosis of the liver;
• beta carotene used to enhance immune response (macrophages); and prevention of cancers, esp. lung & cervix;

General - oil-soluble; rickets-preventive factor; sunshine vitamin; bone & tooth vitamin;

• D-3 (natural form) found in fish liver oils or produced by UV (sun) irradiation of 7-dehydro-cholesterol (derivative of cholesterol) in the fatty layers of the skin;

• D-2 (vegetarian form) produced by UV irradiation of ergosterol, a compound derived from yeast;

• history: oil-soluble anti-rickets factor suggested in 1918; anti-rickets factor found present in cod liver oil (used since early 1800’s) in 1920; crystallized in 1930; identified in 1937;

• sources: fish livers, beef liver, egg yolks; sunshine on skin; milk (fortified with D); supplements: A + D, multi-vitamin, multimineral-vitamin formulations;
• absorption: upper part of small intestine; along with dietary fats; 80% of intake absorbed; skin-formed Vit. D absorbed into lymphatics; alpha-globulin 2 carries it in blood;
• improved by: edible fats & oils; taking with meal;
• synergists: Vitamins A & C prevent Vit. D oxidation; Vitamins B-1 & B-3 increase tolerance for Vit. D; calcium controls bone formation;
• antagonized by: cortisone, some anti-convulsants;
• stability: destroyed by oxygen & light;
• storage: mainly in liver; also in skin, spleen, bones;
• excretion: in bile;
• metabolism: D-3 & D-2 converted to calcidiol in liver; calcidiol converted to calcitriol (active form) in kidneys;
• interactions: sedatives, tranquilizers, anti-convulsants turn Vitamin D to inactive forms;

• functions as hormone; stimulates synthesis of Ca & P binding proteins, which increase absorption of these elements; regulates absorption & metabolism of calcium (Ca) & phosphorus (P); acts in conjunction with parathyroid hormone to stimulate release of Ca from bone into blood; stimulates reabsorption of Ca & P from kidneys;
• especially important in infancy & childhood for bone development;
• co-enzyme in metabolic processes in bone, kidney, liver, & intestine;
• regulates growth, hardening, & repair of bone;
• regulates eruption, growth, & hardness of teeth;
• helps synthesize mucosal enzymes used in active transport of calcium;
• maintains stable nervous system & heart action;
• functions antagonized by: sedatives, tranquilizers, anti-convulsants;

• measurement: µg and IU; 10 µg cholecalciferol = 400 IU of Vitamin D;
• optimum(SONA) average ranges from 10 to 24 µg /day (10 µg = 400 IU);
• minimum (EC RDA) average set at 10 µg (400 I.U.) /day;
• less than RDA: % unknown; especially common in elderly & others living indoors;
• deficiency of Vitamin D results from lack of skin exposure to sunshine; lack in diet; poor intestinal absorption (bowel disease); mineral oil;
• if early in life, symptoms include rickets: permanent skeletal malformation (bowed legs, concave breast, beaded ribs, large head, late eruption of teeth); retarded growth; soft, decay-sensitive teeth; nervous irritability;
• in adults: adult rickets (osteomalacia): symptoms can manifest as bone demineralization & softening; reduced parathyroid activity; lack of vigor; diminished kidney function; muscular weakness; osteoporosis;
• toxicity is unusual ( requires about 3,000 IU/day in infants and 1,000 IU/day/pound of body weight in adults);
• toxic levels of D-2 (ergocalciferol) may increase blood Ca levels (hypercalcemia), which cause appetite loss, nausea, weight loss, & failure to thrive, & affects all tissues adversely; encourage development of atherosclerosis; bind magnesium; cause Ca deposits in soft tissues & inner organs (calciphylaxis);
• block toxic reaction with large doses of Vitamin E, C, & choline;

• usual therapeutic range is 400 - 1,000 IU/day;
• allergic conjunctivitis - high doses (50,000 IU/day) removed symptoms in those tested;
• rectifies chronic calcium deficiency; helps in chronic asthma, arthritis, & depression;
• somewhat effective in treating menopausal symptoms, including irritability, depression, hot flashes, leg cramps, & night sweats;
• offsets toxic effects of lead & other heavy metals if used with pharmacological agents;
• reduces the incidence & severity of common colds when used together with Vitamin A;

General - oil-soluble; anti-sterility factor; oil-soluble antioxidant;

• Vitamin E is the official designation for alpha tocopherol, a fat-soluble nutrient found in the diet in varying amounts. Until recently it was thought that alpha tocopherol was the most active tocopherol and as such only official vitamin E activity (IU) is given to alpha tocopherol.

• The term Vitamin E is now used to refer to all tocol and trienal derivatives. The tocols are alpha, beta, delta and gamma tocopherol, and the trienals are alpha, beta, delta and gamma tocotrienol.

• Gamma tocopherol a potent antioxidant of ozone and nitric oxide, is now shown to be as important as alpha tocopherol. The National Academy of Sciences now suggests that Vitamin E formulas contain both tocopherols and that gamma tocopherol be the predominant one.  

• history: "anti-sterility factor" described in 1911; isolated in 1936; identified in 1938; recognized as essential for humans in 1968; deficiency syndrome described in 1977;

• sources: wheat germ, wheat germ oil, whole grain, unrefined vegetable oil, nuts, seeds, eggs, whole grains, green leafy vegetables; supplements: "dry" E acetate or succinate, d-alpha tocopherol, gamma/alpha tocopherols, multi-vitamin, multimineral-vitamin formulations;
• absorption from small intestine, along with fats; 40 to 60% is absorbed into lymph (inchylomicrons); remainder is discarded in feces;
• improved by: edible fats & oils; being taken with a meal; Vitamin C, which prevents its oxidation; Vitamin A, which aids in transport; manganese & selenium;
• antagonized by: salts & sugar/acid chelates of iron & copper (oxides, carbonates, gluconates, succinates, acetates, etc.); oxygen; rancid food oils; processed foods; mineral oil; oral contraceptives; freezing; oxidizing agents, ozone, & nitrogen oxides;
• stability: destroyed by light & oxygen; heat-stable in boiling, but destroyed during frying & deep frying; some lost in frozen storage; storage at room temperature may decrease Vitamin E content of foods by up to 50% within 2 weeks; encapsulation protects Vitamin E against destruction;
• storage: largely in adipose tissue, liver, & muscle; high concentrations also found in blood platelets, pituitary, adrenals, testes, ovaries;
• metabolism: plasma levels drop to half within a few days when Vitamin E is withdrawn from foods; frank deficiency may take several months to develop;

• chief activity in all cells & tissues is anti-oxidant; prevents oxygen from destroying many other compounds, including Vitamin A, & C, unsaturated fatty acids, & membranes (phospholipids); (Note: oxygen is vital to cell respiration, but will damage cells if antioxidants fail to keep it under control);
• vital to digestion & metabolism of unsaturated fats;
• protects cells from damaging pollutants, peroxides, & free radicals formed from organic molecules during normal metabolic processes; protects lungs against air pollution;
• protects membrane integrity of cells in circulatory, digestive, respiratory, excretory, & nervous systems; protects Vitamin A against destruction by free radicals;
• stimulates development & tone of skeletal, heart, & digestive tract muscles;
• retards aging processes of cells; prolongs life of red blood cells;
• Vitamin E + C reduces the formation of nitrosamines (carcinogen) in bacon;
• Gamma tocopherol plays a critical role in the defense against cancer and cardiovascular disease by inhibiting the process of inflammation more effectively that alpha tocopherol.

• measurement: 1 mg d-alpha tocopherol = 1.49 International Units (IU); 1 mg dl-alpha tocopheryl acetate = 1 IU = 1 tocopherol equivalent (TE);
• optimum (SONA) average ranges from 70 to 800 IU; increases with amount of unsaturated fatty acids in diet; high intake of unsaturated fats increases the rate of oxidative destruction of Vitamin E, which sacrifices itself to spare fat & membranes;
• individual optimum must be determined for each individual;
• minimum (EC RDA) average is set at 7.4 mg (10 IU);
• less than RDA: estimated at 20 - 40% of population, due to reliance on processed foods;
• deficiency from: insufficient intake; poor absorption (inflammatory bowel disease, cystic fibrosis, premature birth); lack of fats in diet; mineral oil; iron & copper salts; injury & tissue destruction, which rapidly use up body’s supplies; rancid oils; increased requirement (premature infants, pregnant & lactating women);- intake of Vitamin E from foods has fallen 95% since 1900, due to removal during food processing; deficiency is widespread in unsupplemented diets;
• symptoms include: formation of peroxides, dienes, & free radicals within cells, formed by oxidation of membrane fats & of soluble factors in cell cytoplasm; rupture of cell membranes; destruction or irreparable damage to nearby cells by substances spilling from ruptured cells; damage transmitted to future generations of cells; shortened red blood cell life; production of age pigment spots (ceroid pigments; lipofuscin);
• first clinical signs of deficiency: ruptured red blood cells (hemolysis), followed by abnormal deposits of fat in heart & muscles, shrinkage of connective tissues &/or muscle degeneration;
• prolonged deficiency impairs absorption of fat & fat soluble vitamins, can lead to degeneration of the testes in men; nephritis from kidney tubule blockage by dead cells; blockage of bile duct; chronic pancreatitis; chronic gastrointestinal disorders; thrombotic conditions of the cardiovascular system; infertility in men & women; progressive neuro-muscular disease in children & adults (nutritional muscular dystrophy); formation of age pigments (lipofuscin); Vitamin E deficiency anemia from oxidative destruction of red blood cells;-premature infants especially at risk — hemolytic anemia, intraventricular hemorrhage, retrolenticular fibroplasia which can lead to blindness;
• toxicity: virtually impossible to overdose on Vitamin E; 200 times RDA (up to 3,000 IU/day) is safe for most people;
• very high intake may increase bleeding tendency in patients on anti-coagulant drugs;
• extreme supplementation may increase blood pressure in some people; hypertensive individuals start with low quantities & increase by 100 IU/week;
• persons with rheumatic heart conditions may have to limit Vitamin E intake to 150 IU/day;supervision by nutritionally competent health care professional is recommended;

• 100-1,600 IU/day is usual therapeutic range; up to 3,200 IU/day used in menopause;
• corrects the foregoing deficiency conditions if degeneration of the tissue has not progressed to irreparable damage;
• reverses nutritional muscular dystrophy;
• protects brain & nerves, muscles, heart & arteries, glands, & reproductive organs from oxidative damage throughout life;
• Russian athletes use up to 150 IU/2-hour training to spare oxygen & promote endurance;
• improves varicose veins, inflamed veins with blood clots (thrombophlebitis) & intermittent claudication; soothes dry itchy skin; regulates menstrual flow; prevents & alleviates some migraine headaches; prevents miscarriages;
• protects lungs from damage due to smog; retards aging; preventive against cancer & heart disease, as well as general degeneration;
• up to 100 IU/day used in premature infants, to protect cell membranes in brain, nerves, heart, & muscles from oxidative destruction; to prevent blindness & brain damage;
• cystic fibrosis requires 400 IU/day or more, because of poor absorption;
• topical use as anti-inflammatory agent, in cosmetics, to heal wounds, & to protect skin against UV & other damage; retard skin aging;
• Gamma tocopherol may inhibit prostate cancer.

General - oil-soluble; anti-hemorrhagic factor;

• Vitamin K - from the Danish word "koagulation"; its discovery was made by virtue of its role in blood coagulation; several natural forms;

• synthetic, water-soluble forms used in conditions of impaired fat absorption;

• yellow, oily pigment abundant in green leafy vegetables, soya beans, peas, & tomatoes;

• normally manufactured by intestinal bacteria; depends on good intestinal health & flora;

• history: discovered 1934; isolated from alfalfa in 1939;

• sources: widely available; best: alfalfa; dark leafy vegetables, associated with chlorophyll (chloroplasts); 50% of Vitamin K produced by bacteria in lower intestine; supplements: alfalfa; medical injections;
• absorption into lymphatics; requires fats & oils; 40 - 70% absorbed; requires bile & pancreatic secretions;
• improved by: edible fats & oils; Vitamins A, C, & E;
• antagonized by: administration of antibiotics; mineral oil laxatives; bile obstruction;
• stability: heat & oxygen-stable; destroyed by light, acid, alkali, oxidizing agents, alcohol;
• storage: exclusively in the liver;
• excretion: in bile;
• metabolism: rapidly used up;
• interactions: anti-coagulants interfere with activity by oxidizing Vitamin K; intestinal synthesis is reduced by aspirin, some antibiotics, & sulfonamides;

• co-enzyme in liver’s synthesis of protein clotting factors in the blood (prothrombin, & factors VII, IX, & X);
• converts precursor of prothrombin (glutamic acid) to gamma-carboxy-glutamic acid; prothrombin catalyzes conversion of fibrinogen to fibrin, & therefore determines rate at which blood will clot;
• required for function of proteins in bone & kidney; Vit. K appears to have function in Ca metabolism, transport, & deposition;
• co-enzyme involved in activation of glucose in liver (phosphorylation); conversion of glycogen to glucose in energy metabolism & respiration;

• supplemented in hospital settings;
• deficiency of Vitamin K can result from administration of antibiotics & anti-coagulants, including aspirin; poor absorption; liver disease; may affect up to 50% of elderly;
• can result in hemorrhaging (hypothrombinemia), prolonged clotting time, bruising;
• toxicity: large doses may produce hemolytic anemia; bile pigment accumulation in grey matter of nervous system (kernicterus), resulting in mental retardation, jaundice, hemorrhaging, & neurological symptoms;

• 30 - 100 µg/day used in hospital setting; 600 µg/day may be toxic dose;
• prevent obstructive jaundice;
• administered to counteract anti-coagulants during labor;
• given during surgery to speed clotting & to prevent excessive bleeding;
• administered to new-born infants to prevent deaths from excessive bleeding;

General - water-soluble; anti-beriberi factor; anti-neuritic factor;

• first member of the B-complex to be isolated & structurally identified;

• imparts characteristic smell to the B-complex; contains sulfur & nitrogen;

• adult body contains about 30 to 70 mg of thiamin;

• history: beriberi described in 7th century in China; rice bran found to prevent beriberi produced by eating polished rice in 1897; isolated in 1912, called "vitamin", identified in 1936; widespread B-1 deficiency in U.S. documented in 1943;

• sources: all whole foods contain B-1; best: brewer’s yeast; pork, lamb, beef, poultry; sea foods, whole grains, brown rice; fair: walnuts, pecans, lentils, beans; worst: processed & refined foods; supplements: B-1, B-complex, multi-vitamin, multimineral-vitamin formulations;
• absorption: absorbed very rapidly from duodenum & small intestine; circulates freely in bloodstream; must be replenished daily;
• improved by: other B-complex vitamins; anti-oxidant Vitamin C; garlic & onions;
• antagonized by: preparation losses in cooking are very high (25% or more); alcohol; gastritis & liver disease interfere with absorption;
• stability: destroyed by heat, alkali, oxygen; destroyed by baking soda, light, irradiation, meat preservatives;
• storage: throughout the body in endoplasmic reticula of all cells; 50% found in muscle; high concentrations in liver, heart, kidneys, & brain; leukocytes, red blood cells;
• excretion: rapidly through urine;
• metabolism: limited stores can be depleted, & clinical symptoms appear within 2 weeks or less; need for B-1 increases with alcohol, stress, & sugar consumption; need increased for older people; less thiamin needed if fats are burned for energy;
• interactions: some antibiotics & sulfonamides increase need for B-1; tea (8 cups/day) can result in higher B-1 requirement; oral contraceptives decrease body content of B-1;

• predominant role of B-1 is as co-enzyme (TPP — thiamin pyrophosphate or co-carboxylase) to "extract" energy from carbohydrates; required for carbohydrate metabolism, along with B-2, B-3, & B-5;
• necessary to synthesize neurotransmitter (acetylcholine), which allows nerve impulses to travel from one nerve cell to another; has role in maintaining nerve cell membranes;
• involved in synthesis of RNA, fat, & niacin (from tryptophan);
• a principal co-enzyme in liver chemistry; metabolizes acetaldehyde made from alcohol;
• required for health of nerve, heart, muscle, & digestive tissues;
• promotes growth & repair of all tissues;
• essential for production of stomach acid (HCl), required for digestion of proteins;
• assisted by: other B-complex vitamins; anti-oxidant Vitamin C

• measurement: in milligrams;
• optimum (SONA) average ranges from 3.3 to 9.2 mg/day; diets high in refined carbohydrates (sugar, sucrose, glucose, sweets, refined unfortified flours) require more;
• individual optimum must be individually determined; proportional to body weight, caloric intake, food habits, life style factors; minimum is 0.5 grams/1,000 calories;
• minimum (EC RDA) set at 1.4 mg/day;
• less than RDA: 46% of population, according to a U.S. government survey;
• deficiency: can result from inadequate intake, poor absorption, stress, food additives (especially sulfites & nitrites), smoking, heavy drinking (leading cause); high carbohydrate consumption; exposure to air pollutants; use of prescription antibiotics; diarrhea, sprue, ulcerative colitis, cancer, dysentery, biliary disease, lack of HCl; tea, coffee, betel nut; refined & unfortified foods; increased inborn requirement; endemic in areas of the world which eats polished rice as a staple;
• symptoms include: beriberi: severe neurological disorder marked by mental confusion, muscle wasting (dry beriberi) & motor dysfunction, tissue swelling (wet beriberi edema), anorexia, severe gastric distress, cardiac irregularities, heart failure;
• infant beriberi: sudden vomiting, convulsions, abdominal distension, very fast heartbeat (tachycardia), followed by death from heart failure; cyanosis; weak, almost inaudible cry;
• alcohol abuse (Wernicke-Korsakoff): confusion, depression, psychosis, coma;
• subclinical beriberi: fatigue, weight loss, slow nerve reflexes, loss of memory, irritability, stomach upset, generalized weakness, even in areas of adequate diet;
• mild deficiency can produce apathy, mood changes, mental confusion, depression, disorderly thinking, vague fears; indigestion, poor appetite, insomnia; loss of intestinal muscle tone, colon distension, constipation; paresthesia (numbness or burning of extremities); elevated blood pyruvic & lactic acid levels, producing oxygen deficiency probably accounts for most symptoms; possible neurological damage from deficiency during pregnancy; possible role in Alzheimer’s disease;
• toxicity: not recorded; excess B-1 excreted in urine; 100 times RDA completely safe;

• usual therapeutic doses range from 1.5 - 100 mg/day;
• rapidly reverses B-1 deficiency symptoms;
• used to treat alcohol-induced psychosis;
• may restore injured nerve function (neuropathy), neuritis, neuralgia, & pains of various origins; used to treat diseases of central nervous system;
• used in treatment of cardiovascular symptoms;
• treat multiple sclerosis, in conjunction with Vitamin B-3;
• improve muscle tone of digestive tract, eliminating a major cause of constipation;

General - water-soluble; the "yellow enzyme";

• bright yellow vitamin; imparts brilliance to urine of those consuming large quantities;

• first isolated as fluorescent material in milk whey, & shown to be essential for rats;

• B-2 is manufactured by all plants & most bacteria & fungi, but not produced by animals;

• history: yellow enzyme recognized as vitamin in 1917; isolated in 1932; synthesized in 1935;

• sources: widespread in whole foods; brewer’s yeast, dairy products, green leafy vegetables, fruit, grains, meats (esp.organ meats); supplements: B-2, B-complex, multi-vitamin, multimineral-vitamin;
• absorption from the upper portion of small intestine; freely circulates throughout body;
• improved by: other B-complex factors, & anti-oxidant Vitamins C, & E; better absorption if taken with meals;
• antagonized by: alcohol; antibiotics;
• stability: destroyed by light, UV, or alkali; 10 - 30% lost in cooking; 60% lost in milling grains; 75% of B-2 in milk lost in making cheese;
• storage: in endoplasmic reticula of all cells; elevated concentrations found in the liver, heart, kidneys; only minute amounts of B-2 are retained; daily replenishment is vital;
• excretion: through urine;
• interactions: oral contraceptives deplete B-2;

• essential respiratory co-enzyme flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) & flavin mono-nucleotide (FMN) in all cells; contributes to the capacity of several co-enzymes to accept & transfer hydrogen atoms or positive charges;
• converts protein into usable energy;
• helps cells use oxygen; prevents free radical damage by involvement with glutathione;
• maintains good vision; helps prevent development of cataracts;
• helps convert amino acid tryptophan to vitamin B-3; also activates B-6 & folic acid, affecting DNA synthesis, cell division & growth, which require B-3, folacin, & B-6;
• necessary for synthesis of glycogen;
• maintains integrity of skin, nails, & hair;
• required for synthesis of : somatotrophic hormone (STH) which regulates growth; thyroxine which regulates metabolic rate; adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) which stimulates adrenal hormone production & growth; insulin which regulates energy metabolism;
• enhances uptake of iron & B-6;
• necessary to synthesize red blood cells in bone marrow;
• controls growth & development of unborn fetus;
• co-factor in breakdown of fatty acids for energy;
• works together with Vitamin A to maintain healthy mucous membranes;
• important for providing energy necessary for tissue repair; important during pregnancy for normal development of fetus;
• may protect against esophageal cancer;
• functions helped by: other B-complex factors & antioxidant Vitamins C & E;

• measurement: in milligrams (thousandths of a gram);
• optimum (SONA) average ranges from 1.8 to 2.5 mg/day;
• individual optimum must be established for each individual; need increases with body size, energy requirement, exercise, protein consumption, & metabolic rate; biochemical individuality dictates different needs for different people; exceptional need arises from gastrointestinal maladies, prescription antibiotics, oral contraceptives, alcohol, poor diet;
• minimum (EC RDA): set at 1.6 mg/day;
• less than RDA: 34% of population, according to a U.S. government survey;
• deficiency: one of most common vitamin deficiencies in North America;
• results from inadequate diet; alcohol consumption; strenuous exercise; poor absorption; increased requirement; usually part of multiple (B-complex) deficiencies;
• at risk: elderly, alcoholics, athletes (esp. women); pregnant women; fetuses;
• symptoms include: personality disturbances from faulty nerve cell metabolism; congenital malformations;
• sub-clinical deficiency can manifest as: fatigue; digestive upset; hypertension; anorexia; lesions of lips, tongue, mouth, eyes, skin, & genitalia; grainy, burning sensation of eyes & conjunctiva; difficult urination; baldness; sensitivity to light; oily, flaky skin; cataracts; vaginal itching; dizziness; increased effectiveness of cancerogens; growth retardation, birth defects; rapid involuntary eye movements (nystagmus);personality changes include hypochon-driasis, depression, hysteria; reduced hand grip strength;
• toxicity: for B-2 has not been recorded; harmless nutrient, even in doses 100x RDA;

• usual therapeutic dose ranges from 1.7 to 100 mg/day;

• corrects conditions which result from riboflavin deficiency;

• used to treat conjunctivitis, glaucoma, & growth retardation;

• prevent & reverse developing cataracts;

• enhances iron absorption, protecting against anemia;

• with B-6, B-2 may help in treatment of carpal tunnel syndrome;

• boost physical performance by making efficient energy production possible during intense physical activity, & preventing free radical damage;

General - water-soluble; anti-pellagra factor;

• deficiency disease of niacin—pellagra—was known in 1735 by physician to Philip V of Spain;

• virtually unknown in North America until beginning of 20th century;

• 250,000 annual cases of pellagra reported world-wide from 1910 to 1935;

• niacin, nicotinic acid, niacinamide, & nicotinamide are equivalent in niacin activity;

• "Niacin Equivalents" in dietary tables = sum of these 4 forms + tryptophan, which human cells can convert to niacin;

• history: obtained from oxidation of nicotine in 1867; identified as pellagra preventive factor in 1937; transformation of tryptophan to niacin understood in 1945;

• sources: brewer’s yeast; liver; lean meats, fish, & poultry; supplements: "flushing" niacin, "non-flush" niacin complexes, "non-flushing" niacinamide, B-complex, multi-vitamin, multimineral-vitamin;

• absorption: rapid, from small intestine; circulates freely in body;

• stability: stable to heat, light, acid, alkali, & oxidation;

• storage: in all cells; slightly higher amounts found in liver, brain, heart, skin, & gut;

• excretion: through urine;

• metabolism: about 65% of RDA can be made from the amino acid tryptophan; sugars & starches increase requirement;

• interactions: alcohol, antibiotics increase need;

• co-factor (NAD, NADP), energy-producing reactions of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins;

• maintains normal growth rates; needed in synthesis of DNA, fats, proteins & cholesterol;

• promotes production of bile salts, & metabolism of fats & fat soluble vitamins;

• regulates synthesis of sex, thyroid, & pancreatic (insulin) hormones;

• maintains healthy nervous system & brain function, skin, mouth, & digestive tract;

• niacin, but not the amide form, increases blood flow to the extremities, accompanied by "flush" reaction; improves circulation & skin health;

• reduces cholesterol production in the body;

• part of dehydrogenase (hydrogen acceptor) enzymes, carrying out many vital reactions within all cells;

• functions antagonized by: alcohol, excess carbohydrates, stress, prescription antibiotics, strenuous physical exertion, & pregnancy;

• measurement: 60 mg tryptophan = 1 mg niacin =1 NE (Niacin Equivalent) = 1 mg niacinamide;

• optimum (SONA) average ranges from 25 to 30 mg/day;

• individual optimum must be determined individually; should parallel caloric intake; minimum about 7 mg/1,000 calories;

• minimum (EC RDA) set at 18 mg/day;

• less than RDA: 30% of population, according to a U.S. government survey;

• deficiency can result from lack in the diet; excess alcohol or carbohydrates; stress; antibiotics; intense physical exertion; pregnancy; poor absorption; inordinately high requirement;

• symptoms include: four D’s of pellagra: dermatitis, diarrhea, dementia, & death; skin symptoms aggravated by sunlight;

• sub-clinical deficiency symptoms include lassitude, mild skin rash, irritability, headache, anorexia, memory loss, anger, depression &/or fear, insomnia; tongue: red tip, enlarged taste buds, white coating, false pigmentation; rough inflamed skin;

• toxicity: niacin: non-harmful "niacin flush" - reddened, itchy skin & chills, lasting 15 to 40 minutes, from niacin’s release of vasodilating histamine;

• large doses (more than 1,000 mg) are best monitored by a health professional; may produce stomach pain, diarrhea, cardiac arrhythmia, itching, & nausea; may increase blood sugar levels in diabetics, elevate blood pressure, worsen gastric ulcer, worsen gout by increasing uric acid levels;

• timed release high dose niacin: may impair liver function;

• niacinamide produces no flush; but has slightly higher liver toxicity than niacin;

• usual therapeutic dose: 20 - 1,000 mg/day; up to 3,000 or even 6,000 mg/day in cardiovascular disease & schizophrenia;

• alleviates all deficiency symptoms;

• helpful in returning non-functioning schizophrenics to (tax-paying) functionality;

• 100 mg of oral niacin given 3x/day may help provide relief from chronic acne;

• niacin (not niacinamide) may reduce alcoholics’ craving for alcohol; may help remove pesticides, PCBs, & other toxins from body (used with saunas & exercise);

• lowers high blood cholesterol & triglyceride levels; increases beneficial HDL cholesterol; improves circulation;

• with chromium, may be helpful in diabetes;

• reduces high blood pressure in some people;

• large doses may relieve migraine headaches;

• reverse dysperception & delusions of people suffering from mental disorders; may relieve vertigo characteristic of Meniere’s syndrome through improved circulation;

• in conjunction with high protein diet, 250 mg, 6x/day helps overcome pain & stiffness of arthritis;

General - water-soluble; anti-dermatitis factor;

• natural B-6 contains 3 equally effective forms: pyridoxine, pyridoxal, & pyridoxamine;

• liver converts Vitamin B-6 to metabolically active pyridoxal phosphate;

• adult body contains about 25 mg of B-6;

• history: suspected in 1926, confirmed in 1935; isolated in 1938; structure identified in 1939; other forms identified in 1945; deficiency in infants due to over-processed formulas identified in 1951; requirement in humans established in 1957;

• sources: best: brewer’s yeast, liver, chicken; good: ham, fish, nuts, whole grains, cauliflower, beans, bananas, raisins; poor: most vegetables & fruits, refined & processed, starchy foods; supplements: B-6, B-complex, multi-vitamin, & multimineral-vitamin formulations;

• absorption occurs in the small intestine; 70% absorbed;

• improved by: other B-complex vitamins, & antioxidant Vitamin C;

• stability: relatively stable to heat; destroyed by light, UV, oxidation, alkaline conditions; freezing loses 15-70%; cooking loses up to 40%; milling grains loses 50-90%;

• storage: throughout the body; slightly elevated concentrations in liver, nerve tissue, muscles, & lymphatic system; bound to proteins (albumin & hemoglobin) in blood;-body retains small amounts of pyridoxine; adequate daily consumption needed to maintain healthy levels;

• excretion: through urine;

• metabolism: converted to active form, pyridoxal-5-phosphate (PLP) in liver & blood cells, catalyzed by magnesium & zinc; circulates in blood attached to albumin protein; requirement increased with high protein & high fat diets;

• interactions: oral contraceptives, estrogen, antidepressants interfere with B-6 activity & increase need;

• high doses of B-6 may interfere with levodopa treatment of Parkinson’s disease;

• required for normal growth; necessary for functions of more than 60 enzymes;

• helps in B-12 absorption;

• necessary for immune function & cancer protection; improves immune function in elderly;

• role in heart & artery health; converts toxic, atherogenic homocysteine into methionine;

• main function of B-6 is transamination & deamination reactions (move amine {NH2} groups between molecules; B-6 links amino acid {protein} & energy metabolism); also involved in decarboxylation reactions;

• PLP is co-enzyme in the metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins, & fats;

• co-factor in the physiology of muscle, lymph, & nerve tissues;

• regulates energy production in cells; necessary for glucose tolerance; involved in breakdown of glycogen for energy;

• converts essential fatty acids into prostaglandins (linoleic acid to arachidonic acid);

• regulates water retention/excretion; maintains proper sodium/potassium ratios;

• co-enzyme in synthesis of lipids from fatty acids, & proteins from amino acids;

• necessary for formation of Vitamin B-3 from tryptophan;

• improves oral health by maintaining integrity of teeth & facial bones;

• vital for forming red blood cell pigment (heme), nucleic acids, bile salts, hormones, brain chemicals, & immune antibodies;

• necessary to produce neurotransmitters (epinephrine, serotonin, histamine) from amino acids; low B-6 during brain development results in permanent impairment;

• plays part in thyroid hormone metabolism, & in insulin & growth hormone synthesis;

• plays part in DNA, RNA, & elastin (connective tissue) synthesis;

• synergized by: B-2, B-3, biotin, which help convert B-6 into its active form;

• antagonized by: increased intake of lipids or proteins; stress; pregnancy; aging; more than 40 drugs, including some antibiotics (cycloserine), oral contraceptives (estrogens), tuberculosis drug isoniazid, penicillamine, blood pressure lowering drugs (hydrallazine), anti-metabolites (desoxypyri-doxine), & others;

• measurement: in milligrams;
• optimum (SONA) averages range from 2 to 25 mg/day;
• individual optimum must be determined by each individual; determined by body weight & diet; 2 mg/100 grams of protein is necessary for positive nitrogen balance & amino acid metabolism; to prevent imbalance, B-6 should equal B-1 & B-2 consumption;
• minimum (EC RDA) set at 2.0 mg/day;
• less than RDA: 80% of population, according to a U.S. government survey; almost 50% of population obtains less than 70% of RDA;
• deficiency from inadequate diet, estrogen birth control pills, pharmaceutical drugs; pregnancy & lactation; chronic alcohol use; high protein diet; poor absorption; higher requirement; unsupplemented fasting & reducing diets; increased need during pregnancy, lactation, exposure to radiation, cardiac failure, aging;
• symptoms include: headache; dizziness; generalized weakness & fatigue; irritability; unable to concentrate; insomnia; depression; water retention; skin lesions: sores on lips, skin, & tongue; white blood cell dysfunctions; dandruff, & oily scales on scalp & eye-brows (seborrheic dermatitis); iron-resistant anemia; disorders of nerves, heart, & joints; poor wound healing; abdominal distress, vomiting; poor growth; erratic blood glucose levels; abnormal decrease in hemoglobin level (hypochromic anemia); inability to convert tryptophan into Vitamin B-3; kidney stones; brain wave (EEG) abnormalities; nerve degeneration; low blood sugar, glucose intolerance, insensitivity to insulin; numbness & cramps in arms & legs; visual disturbances, neuritis, arthritis, limb paralysis, heart disorders involving nerves; increased urination;
• infants: convulsive seizures of cerebral origin;
• prenatal deficiency: may result in blood disorders & mental retardation of infants;
• severe deficiency may result in stillbirth;
• toxicity: low; 50 times RDA is safe over long term; at levels approaching 500 mg/day, may develop sensory neuropathy after several years; 2 to10 grams/day develop sensory neuropathy within a few months;
• reversed by cessation of supplement;

• usual therapeutic dose from 2 to 200 mg/day;

• useful in treatment of homocysteine-related heart & artery disease;

• improves immune function in immune deficiency (cancer, AIDS);

• prevent oxalate kidney stones; mild diuretic;

• treat depression due to inability to convert tryptophan to neurotransmitter serotonin;

• helpful in treating allergies, arthritis, asthma, carpal tunnel syndrome;

• reverses deficiency conditions, certain kinds of anemia, abnormalities of amino acid metabolism;

• 40 mg/day used to treat morning sickness (nausea & vomiting) during early pregnancy; vital during pregnancy & lactation; may relieve depression from oral contraceptives;

• improves fertility in some cases of unexplained infertility;

• 50 - 200 mg/day may relieve premenstrual syndrome (PMS);

• arthritic conditions may be alleviated by high doses of B-6 + cider vinegar & lecithin;

• may improve glucose tolerance in some cases of diabetes mellitus or gestational diabetes;

• may lessen frequency & severity of asthma attacks (wheezing, coughing, breathing difficulties);

• 25 - 200 mg/day may have beneficial effects in treatment of radiation sickness;

• 500 mg/day used to treat carpal tunnel syndrome, instead of penicillamine;

• 250 to 1,000 mg of pyridoxine increase dream recall without disturbing sleep patterns;

• "mauve factor" (kryptopyrrole) schizophrenics may require 250 - 3,000 mg/day of B-6 to function normally; kryptopyrrole binds B-6, producing deficiency;

• B-6 + magnesium oxide prevent the recurrence of kidney stones;

• large doses of B-6 + magnesium help treat childhood "autism";

• most complex vitamin;
• resembles plant pigment chlorophyll & blood pigment heme, but contains cobalt instead of magnesium (plant) or iron (blood);
• only vitamin that contains a metal;
• for absorption, requires intrinsic factor, a mucoprotein present in gastric juice of normal individuals, but absent in individuals with defective gastric secretion or genetic condition; supplementation with intrinsic factor helps those unable to produce their own, but does not significantly increase B-12 absorption in normal individuals;
• history: found that raw liver cures pernicious anemia in 1926 (Nobel Prize awarded in 1934); isolated in 1948; synthesized in 1973;

• sources: best: fish, dairy, organ meats (esp. liver & kidney); good: eggs, meats; poor: small (insufficient) quantities are present in spirulina, sea vegetables, fermented soy products (tempeh), & other vegetarian sources; supplements: B-12, B-complex, multi-vitamin, multi-mineral-vitamin formulations; intramuscular injections;

• absorption: of conjugated cobalamin occurs in ileum of small intestine, where intrinsic factor is released; 60 - 80% of low intake absorbed; 5 - 10% of high intake absorbed; increased during pregnancy; many small doses absorbed better than few large ones;

• improved by: presence of intrinsic factor; calcium, presence of Vitamin C, B-6, other B-complex vitamins, & hydrochloric acid;

• antagonized by: alcohol, lack of HCl & intrinsic factor (hereditary, or age-related); deficiency of iron, B-6, & calcium; potassium blocks absorption;

• transport: to liver and through the bloodstream by several different globulin proteins;

• stability: destroyed by light & alkali; over 50% is in unstable form, destroyed in processing & food preparation; remainder is in stable form; stable to acid & oxidation;

• storage: mainly in liver, bone marrow, kidneys, heart, pancreas, & brain; high levels in blood of healthy individuals; depleted by laxatives;

• excretion: in bile, urine, saliva;

• metabolism: works in conjunction with folic acid; conversion to active form of B-12 requires B-2, B-3, & manganese;

• interactions: anti-gout medications & anticoagulants may block absorption; aspirin & its substitutes, codeine, antibiotics, laxatives, oral contraceptives interfere with functions;

• participates in physiological activities basic to growth & division of all healthy cells; especially important in rapidly dividing cells;

• involved in synthesis of nucleic acid (DNA);

• essential for function of several enzymes involved in amino acid & fatty acid metabolism;

• involved in fat & carbohydrate metabolism;

• involved in metabolism of liver, kidneys, nervous system, heart, skin, muscle, & bone;

• maintains healthy nervous tissue; keeps anti-oxidant glutathione — involved in several enzymes of carbohydrate (brain energy) metabolism — in active (reduced -SH form);

• necessary for metabolism of iron, folic acid, & glucose; helps turn folic acid into active form; aids in formation of folic acid; produces single-carbon units which folic acid transfers from one substance to another; releases folacin from methyl folacin stored in liver (B-12 deficiency produces folacin deficiency); helps folic acid to make choline;

• together with folic acid, B-12 regulates formation of healthy red blood cells, providing methyl (CH3) groups for DNA of dividing cells; lack of CH3 prevents cell division & produces undivided giant red blood cells (megaloblasts);

• promotes nitrogen retention, & raises biological value of proteins, leading to more rapid growth per unit of food (animals); antibiotics in feeds may speed animal growth by killing bacteria that destroy B-12;

• growth factor in underweight children, along with improvement in diet;

• maintains fertility, normal growth, & development;

• closely related to functions of 4 amino acids (methionine-homocysteine, glycine, serine, glutamic acid), & Vitamins B-5 & C; improves iron function;

• helps bring Vitamin A into tissues; helps absorb carotene & convert it to Vitamin A;

• measurement: micrograms (mcg);

• optimum (SONA) average 2 to 3 µg/day;

• individual optimum must be established for each individual;

• minimum (EC RDA) set at 1 µg/day;

• less than RDA: 30%, according to a U.S. government survey;

• deficiency: micrograms quantities of B-12 can be difficult to obtain, due to dietary deficiency; impaired absorption; lack of intrinsic factor, transfer proteins (trans-cobalmin I & II), stomach hydrochloric acid (HCl), or calcium, all of which are essential for absorption; tapeworm or bacteria in stomach & intestines; increased requirement;

• at risk: vegan diets provide insufficient Vitamin B-12, & need to be supplemented; deficiency develops slowly in vegan adults (10+ years); vegan children (small stores of B-12 to draw on) may show deficiency 2 - 3 years after birth; HCl production decreases with age, & elderly individuals require more cobalamin;

• symptoms include: pernicious anemia, characterized by inability of bone marrow to produce normal, healthy red blood cells;

• prolonged pernicious anemia can result in brain damage &/or severe neuritis, including degeneration of nerves & spinal cord;

• sub-clinical deficiency may include: tenderness in legs; slow reflexes; memory loss; irritability & mood swings; red-tipped sore tongue (like B-3 deficiency, without white coating); impaired sensory perception; anemia; fatigue, loss of appetite, & constipation; labored breathing; palpitation; headache; difficulty walking; stammering, & jerking;

• toxicity: injections of more than 1,000 µg/day cause no ill effects; low absorption rate suggests that oral intake of 10 times that amount will produce no adverse effects;

• usual therapeutic doses range from 3 to 1,000 µg/day;

• injected B-12, or large oral doses, reverse clinical & sub-clinical symptoms;

• powerful rejuvenating & energizing effects; especially useful during periods of stress, fatigue, recovery from illness (even when B-12 normal by standard measures;

• improves memory, reasoning ability, concentration; dispels mental disturbances, prevents mental deterioration;

• restores appetite & vigor; helps patients recover from viral & bacterial infections;

• effective for treating osteoarthritis, osteoporosis, bursitis, & asthma;

• protects against smoking-induced cancer (smokers have abnormally low levels of B-12 & folic acid); smoke reduces levels of B-12 & folate in lung tissue;

• 2,000 - 4,000 mcg sublingually protects against toxins & allergens, especially sulfites (food & wine additives);

• massive oral doses or injections help people lacking intrinsic factor;

• keeps those eating vegan or macrobiotic diets from deteriorating due to B-12 deficiency;

• intrinsic factor can also be supplemented together with B-12;

General - water-soluble; widely distributed in all living things; "anti-stress" vitamin;

• pantothenic acid can come from foods or be made by bacteria in healthy intestinal tracts;

• history: described in 1933; isolated in 1938; synthesized in 1940; biochemical function identified in 1947; structure elucidated in 1953;

• sources: best: organ meats (liver, kidney, heart), fish, whole grains; good: eggs, beef, beans, milk, vegetables; supplements: B-5, B-complex, multi-vitamin, multimineral-vitamin formulations; Royal Jelly;

• absorption: takes place in the small intestine; about 50% of intake is absorbed;

• like other water soluble nutrients, circulates freely in the blood;

• improved by: folic acid aids in assimilation of B-5;

• antagonized by: antibiotics;

• stability: destroyed in dry heat, acid, & alkali; stable in moist heat; 20 -35% lost from cooking animal foods, 46 - 78% from vegetable foods; 50% lost in refining wheat;

• storage: highest amounts in liver, adrenal glands, brain, heart, & kidneys;

• excretion: readily excreted in urine;

• metabolism: Co-enzyme A synthesized within cells, protein-bound, & stays within cells; increased need after injury, severe illness;

• interactions: with antibiotics;

• component of co-enzyme A (CoA) & acyl carrier protein (ACP), vital for 70+ enzyme reactions, including central role in carbohydrate, lipid, protein, amino acid, & energy metabolism;

• necessary for formation of part of hemoglobin molecule (porphyrin);

• needed for normal functioning of intestinal tract;

• source or acceptor of acetate groups (CH3COO-); provides acetate for acetylcholine (neurotransmitter & used to detoxify some drugs);

• virtually all physiological functions & biochemical reactions in cells are affected by B-5;

• necessary for: synthesis of bile salts, neurotransmitters, & growth hormone (STH); uptake of free amino acids by cells; synthesis of fats from fatty acids; synthesis of cholesterol & adrenal steroid hormones (cortisone); tissue water balance; synthesis of red blood cells;

• stimulates immune antibody response; stimulates intestinal absorption of nutrients;

• vital to all energy-requiring processes in all cells;

• measurement: in milligrams;

• optimum (SONA) average ranges not yet set;

• individual optimum must be determined individually;

• minimum (EC RDA) set at 6 mg/day;

• less than RDA: % unknown; estimate: 25% of population;

• deficiency may result from inadequate diet; poor absorption; increased requirement; deficiencies are rarely seen, due to widespread occurrence of B-5 in foods;

• symptoms include: physical weakness & cramps, impaired co-ordination, insomnia, mental depression, disrupted nerve function, anorexia, constipation, fatigue, irritability, nausea, vomiting, susceptibility to infection, lower disease resistance; slowing down of many metabolic processes; adrenal exhaustion, skin disorders, insulin sensitivity, low blood sugar (hypoglycemia); "burning" feet; upper respiratory infections; duodenal ulcers; low stomach acid;

• toxicity: not known; 10,000 - 20,000 mg doses cause diarrhea;

• usual therapeutic dose ranges from 10 to 1,000 mg/day;

• improves adrenal function; useful in hay fever & allergies;

• improves stress tolerance;

• 1,000 - 2,000 mg/day relieves morning stiffness, disability, & pain severity in rheuma- toid arthritis (low B-5 levels in this condition); best results with vegetarians using B-5 plus Royal Jelly;

• B-5 appears to stimulate cell growth in healing process, wounds healing faster & firmer;

• may help in treatment of depression & anxiety;

• used to overcome post-operative shock, & reverse curare & isoniazid poisoning;

• used to treat gastrointestinal tract paralysis after surgery; increases G.I. motility;

• detoxifies acetaldehyde, a toxic product of alcohol;

• extends life span of mice by about 20%;

• might help prevent premature aging & wrinkles (anecdotal evidence);

• might restore hair color in some people (anecdotal evidence);

• 2,000 mg/day improves athletic performance, uses less oxygen, produces less lactic acid; useful in treating liver cirrhosis & marginal diabetes;

• 600 - 1,200 mg/day of pantethine, a metabolite of B-5, lowers high cholesterol (15%) & triglycerides (30%); appears to inhibit dangerous clots & irregular heartbeats;

• pantethine may boost immune functions of macrophages & natural killer cells;

• protects against cellular damage caused by excessive radiation;

• calcium pantothenate stops tooth grinding (bruxism) while asleep;

General - water-soluble; "hair" vitamin;

• first isolated from egg yolks & identified as vital growth factor for yeast;

• raw egg white contains a glycoprotein (avidin) that inactivates biotin, & prevents its absorption from the gut; 27 egg whites/day are necessary to induce deficiency;

• biotin comes from foods, & bacteria in healthy gut make unknown amounts of it;

• history: need for biotin in yeast identified in 1924; egg white injury in rats (dermatosis & loss of hair) reversed by liver factor in 1927; need for biotin demonstrated in human diet in 1942; biological functions identified in 1959; genetic error in biotin-dependent carboxylase described in 1971;

• sources: best: yeast, liver, kidney, soy bean, egg yolks; good: sardine, salmon, whole grains, nuts, cauliflower; fair: corn, legume, rice, spinach, chicken; intestinal bacteria produce some biotin (stimulated by sucrose); supplements: B-complex, multi-vitamin, & multimineral-multivitamin formulations;

• absorption of biotin occurs in upper part of small intestine; 50% of estimated daily 25 to 45 mg from foods is absorbed;

• antagonized by: poor diet; raw egg white; antibiotics; excess choline; rancid fats; low stomach acid; saccharin;

• stability: destroyed by alkali & oxidation; relatively heat-stable; slight cooking losses; moderate processing & refining losses;

• storage: highest in liver, kidneys, brain, adrenals; blood levels high;

• excretion: excess excreted in urine;

• metabolism: usually bound to protein, released by enzyme action; works with zinc; increased need during pregnancy & lactation; works with lysine (biocytin);

• interactions: alcohol consumption increases need for biotin; antibiotics including sulfonamides & oxytetracycline reduce biotin-producing bacteria;

• main activity occurs in the liver, in carbon dioxide transfer reactions;

• involved in synthesis of nucleic acids & energy carrier ATP;

• part of several enzyme systems involved in normal growth & maintenance of nervous system tissue, bone marrow, sweat glands, male sex glands, skin tone, hair quality, & blood cells;

• involved in the synthesis & oxidation of fatty acids;

• takes part in stimulating protein synthesis & deaminating several amino acids;

• involved in oxidation of carbohydrates for energy; involved in insulin activity;

• involved in synthesis of Vitamin B-3, digestive enzyme (pancreatic amylase), immune antibodies;

• involved in utilization of protein, folic acid, B-12, & pangamic acid;

• important in metabolism of branched chain amino acids;

• necessary for glycogen formation;

• required for healthy hair & skin;

• measurement: micrograms; milligrams;

• optimum (SONA) average not yet available;

• individual optimum must be individually determined;

• minimum (EC RDA) set at 150 µg/day;

• less than RDA: not measured; estimated at less than 10% of the population 

• deficiency can result from sterilization of intestinal tract by prescription antibiotics; diet exceedingly high in raw egg white (avidin is inactivated by cooking); inborn (genetic) error; patients undergoing hemodialysis; intravenously fed patients; long-term anti-convulsive therapy; alcoholics, burn patients, people with G.I. disorders; sudden death infants; deficiency symptoms develop in 3 - 4 weeks on biotin-free diet, & worsen with time; weight loss diets, poor absorption, increased requirement;

• symptoms similar to B-1 deficiency, include: dry, scaly, dry skin (dermatitis), lack of energy, loss of appetite (anorexia), & muscle tone; hair loss; nausea, vomiting, mental depression, insomnia, pale tongue, disturbances of nervous system, heightened sensitivity to touch (hyperesthesia); grayish skin tone;

• prolonged: fatigue, sleepiness, muscle pains, loss of taste buds; anemia, elevated serum cholesterol; lowered hemoglobin;

• chronic, severe deficiency can result in hair loss (alopecia) & hair discoloration;

• toxicity: none known; daily injections of 10 mg in children for several months show no side effects;

• 5 to 10 mg/day useful in treating seborrheic dermatitis & Leiner’s disease in children;

• 150 or more mg/day used to alleviate biotin deficiency;

• 2.5 mg/day used successfully to treat brittle nails;

• used in management of "uncombable" hair (profusion of cowlicks);

• increased biotin levels may slow down aging process;

• may help athletes; biotin may improve branched chain amino acid metabolism;

General - water-soluble; "smoker’s vitamin";

• a conglomerate compound comprised of PABA (para-aminobenzoic acid), glutamic acid, & the organic pigment pterin;

• first isolated from 4 tons of spinach leaf & named after Latin name for leaf: folium;

• folic acid comes from dietary sources, & is also made by healthy intestinal bacteria, which use dietary PABA as a precursor;

• history: yeast & liver extract cures macrocytic anemia in 1931; name suggested in 1941; folate cures megaloblastic anemia in 1945; requirement for humans estimated in 1962;

• sources: best: liver, dark green leafy vegetables, dry beans & peas, wheat germ, yeast; good: egg yolk, broccoli, orange juice, peanuts, almonds, whole grains, Brussels sprouts; intestinal bacteria; supplements: folate, B-complex, multi-vitamin, & multimineral-vitamin formulations;

• absorption: from small intestine; about 30 to 50% absorbed; circulates freely in blood;

• improved by: presence of other vitamins & minerals;

• antagonized by: alcohol; mal-absorption; the "pill" & other drugs; stomach disorders;

• stability: destroyed by by heat & oxygen; at room temperature, up to 70% of folate from vegetables is lost within 3 days; up to 95% may be lost in cooking water;

• storage: mainly (6 months supply) in liver;

• excretion:

• metabolism: works with B-12; associated with glutamic acid, which is split off in intestinal wall before folacin is absorbed; healing, hyperthyroidism, hemolytic anemia, & pregnancy require increased amounts;

• interactions: folic acid need increased by drugs, alcohol, oral contraceptives, antibiotics; sulfa drugs interfere with bacterial synthesis of folacin; aminopterin & streptomycin destroy folacin; high doses of folic acid may slow zinc metabolism;

• involved in all cells; indirectly affects all protein & enzyme metabolism;

• necessary to convert phenylalanine into tyrosine, & to oxidize & decarboxylate tyrosine;

• required to form part of hemoglobin (porphyrin);

• required for metabolism of long-chain fatty acids in brain;

• involved in all biological reactions that involve transfer of methyl (CH3) groups: includesformation of methionine, serine, choline (from ethanolamine); synthesis of histidine; preparation of niacin for excretion; synthesis of all DNA & RNA bases;

• especially important in the functions of rapidly dividing cells: red & white blood cells, tongue, intestinal wall, developing fetus;

• co-enzyme in: forming red blood cells; synthesizing enzymes that control cell division; regulating embryonic development of nerve cells; amino acid metabolism; maintaining healthy cells in nervous system, sex organs, intestinal tract, & blood;

• essential for optimal functioning of nervous system & bone marrow;

• involved in production of HCl;

• essential for mental & emotional health; helps liver function (mobilizes fat from liver);

• required to convert toxic homocysteine into the essential amino acid methionine;

• pregnancy increases demand for folacin, for neural development of fetus;

• synergized by: Vitamin C & other B-complex vitamins;

• antagonized by: alcohol, oral contraceptives, antibiotics, many drugs; stress, & pregnancy;

• measurement: micrograms; milligrams;

• optimum (SONA) averages 300 to 1,000 µg/day;

• individual optimum must be individually determined; especially important during pregnancy & fetal growth to prevent neural tube defects, cleft lip, cleft palate; supplementation during pregnancy recommended; requirement increases with rapid cell growth (pregnancy, hyperthyroid, hemolytic anemia), size, & metabolic rate;

• minimum (EC RDA) set at 200 µg/day;

• less than RDA: in excess of 10% of population, according to a U.S. government survey; clinical estimates suggest 70% of population may need more than they get;

• deficiencies of folacin can result from: inadequate intake; impaired absorption due to low HCl (which requires folacin for its production), destroyed intestinal mucosa; increased requirement (leukemia, Hodgkin’s); increased losses;

• at risk: alcoholic; low socio-economic status: adolescents, pregnant adolescents, infants, prematures, young children, & elderly; infants fed unfortified milk; women on the "pill"; people with stomach disorders; patients on drug treatments (cholestyramine, anti-epileptic drugs, sulfasalazine, anticancer drugs, phenobarb); people on hemodialysis or parenteral nutrition; poor, lonely people;

• symptoms include: brain damage, learning disorders, retarded development of the newborn infant; effects on pregnant mother include: toxemia of pregnancy, postpartum hemorrhaging, & iron-resistant (megaloblastic) anemia;

• first symptoms of folic acid deficiency include poor memory from faulty nucleic acid synthesis, apathy, irritability, slowed intellectual processes; cracked lips & mouth corners, such as found in B-2 deficiency;

• chronic deficiency results in anemias — megaloblastic, pernicious, & macrocytic;

• in the elderly poor cell growth, graying hair, impaired digestion;

• toxicity: none associated with folacin ; 100 times RDA is safe; 10 mg/day for 5 years without adverse effects; 15 mg/day produces no toxic effects;

• high folacin intake can mask Vitamin B-12 deficiency (folic acid corrects anemia symptoms but not neurological damage of B-12 deficiency;

• reversed by: folate & B-12 administered together;

• supplemental levels of folic acid (400 to 1,000 µg/day) reverse deficiency symptoms & reduces incidence of neural tube defect in children of normal women, & also women on anti-epileptic drugs;

• beneficial in treating diarrhea, sprue, dropsy, stomach problems, leg ulcers, glossitis;

• can improve circulation of people with atherosclerosis & diabetes;

• folacin, + PABA, B-12, & B-5 may prevent graying of hair;

• 5 to 10 mg/day of folacin increased capillary blood flow, warms extremities, lowers atherogenic homocysteine levels; & benefits atherosclerotics;

• 10 mg/day reduces abnormal cells in oral contraceptive users with cervical dysplasia;

• 10 mg/day folacin + 500 µg/day B-12 decreases abnormal cells in smokers with bronchial dysplasia;

• oral intake of folic acid decreases chromosome breakages in human cells;

General - water-soluble; anti-scurvy factor;

• saturated adult human body contains about 5,000 mg; 1,500 mg on 100 mg/day intake; lost at rate of 3% per day; signs of scurvy begin at 300 mg body content;

• made by almost all plants; most animals make Vitamin C in liver or kidneys on need;

• due to a mutation millions of years ago, humans & a few other species lack enzyme needed to convert glucose to Vitamin C, & depend on dietary sources;

• scurvy prevented by less than 100 mg/day; need for optimum health fluctuates widely;

• Vitamin C dependency can be seen as "potentially fatal inborn (genetic) error in glucose metabolism" (genetic condition like albinism, sickle cell anemia, & hemophilia) requiring between 1,500 and 4,500 mg/day for other important functions in the body;

• 150 pounds (adult human weight) of rat, mouse, housefly, dog, squirrel, goat, cow, mountain lion, etc. make between 2,000 & 15,000 mg/day, & 4 or 5 times that much during periods of injury, stress or prolonged physical activity;

• diets recommended for captive monkeys provide 4,000 to 5,000 mg/day of ascorbic acid per 150 pounds of body weight; - human should have similar requirements (cell biochemistry is similar);

• history: scurvy described by Hippocrates in 400 B.C.; limes to British sailors in 1747 prevents scurvy ("scourge of the navy") deaths on sea voyages, & "limeys" rule the seas for 200 years; structure identified in 1932; synthesized in 1934; world-wide attention in 1970;

• sources: best: black currant, sweet pepper, parsley; good: cauliflower, potato, sweet potato, broccoli, Brussels sprout, strawberry, citrus, guava, mango, fresh vegetables, fresh fruit; C content increases with matured development of plant; adrenal glands of freshly killed animals; supplements: acid, mineral salts, & effervescent powders; tablet, timed release tablet; capsule, multi-vitamin, & multimineral-vitamin formulations;

• absorption from duodenum & small intestine, both passive diffusion & Na-dependent active transport; circulates freely; low concentrations (30 - 60 mg) 100% absorbed; absorption: 90 mg dose = 80%; 1,500 mg = 49%; 3,000 mg = 36%; 12,000 mg = 16%; unabsorbed Vitamin C continues into bowel, draws water by osmotic effect, & makes watery stools;

• improved by: frequent small doses absorbed better than few large doses;

• antagonized by: smoking, stress, high fever, antibiotics, cortisone, inhalation of DDT or petroleum fumes, aspirin;

• stability: destroyed by heat, light, & oxygen; destroyed by long storage (15% /month) & cooking (30 - 50%); 50% lost within 1 week of irradiation (potatoes); C loss from broccoli: microwaved = 15%; pressure cooked =20%; steamed = 30%; boiled = 55%; destroyed by baking soda;

• storage: throughout the body; highest (50x) concentration in adrenals; elevated (3 - 10x) in kidneys, lung, liver, placenta; also high in pituitary, white blood cells, brain, thymus, & eye lens; muscles hold about 600 mg; fetal plasma is 2 - 4x higher than adult;

• excretion: oxidized form excreted through kidneys within few hours after consumption; also lost through sweat;

• metabolism: oxidized to dehydroascorbic acid; re-usable after being reduced to ascorbic acid again; excretion increased by sulfa drugs; increased C requirement in elevated serum copper (schizophrenia, stress, smoking, menstruation, the "pill", last months of pregnancy) or iron (injury);

• interactions: aspirin, alcohol, analgesics, antidepressants, anticoagulants, oral contraceptives, & steroids may decrease body’s C levels; Vitamin C is used up in detoxification of drugs; copper cooking utensils destroy C present in foods; C can give false reading on blood glucose tests;

• required for synthesis of connective tissue substances chondroitin sulfate & collagen, which are structural & cementing materials of the body & give structure to muscle, vascular tissue, bone, cartilage, & scar tissue;

• necessary for wound healing; aids in forming red blood cells;

• hydroxylates (OH addition) lysine to hydroxylysine & proline to hydroxyproline;

• prevents capillary bleeding into intercellular spaces (gums, skin);

• keeps bone matrix (mainly of collagen) capable of holding Ca & P for strong bones;

• keeps cartilage (mainly collagen) able to hold bones in place at joints;

• critical to certain time in dentin layer formation during tooth development;

• antioxidant (reducing agent), protects Vitamins B-1, B-2, folic acid, B-5, A, & E from oxidative destruction; enhances immune system function; protects brain & spinal cord from damage by free radicals; many beneficial effects of Vitamin C result from its antioxidant rather than its vitamin properties;

• prevents harmless substances from being oxidized to carcinogenic state (e.g. nitrates to nitrites, to nitrosamines);

• promotes synthesis of mucopolysaccharides, which inhibit growth of cancer cells;

• ascorbic acid sulfate may provide sulfates for mucopolysaccharide synthesis; crosses blood-brain barrier; mobilizes cholesterol from tissues for removal from body; lowers cholesterol;

• protects against stress of surgery, radiation, & chemotherapy (cancer treatment);

• detoxifies histamine, relieves symptoms of niacin flush, hay fever, frostbite, poisoning;

• necessary for synthesis of carnitine, transporter of fats into mitochondria, which "burn" fats to produce energy;

• required to make neurotransmitters (tyrosine to noradrenaline, tryptophan to serotonin);

• necessary for phenylalanine & tyrosine metabolism; indirectly involved in thyroid hormone production;

• required to make peptide (protein) hormones which stimulate synthesis of pigment-producing hormone & adrenal steroid hormones;

• required to convert cholesterol to bile acids; helps regulate blood fats;

• catalyzes conversion of folic acid to its active form;

• helps calcium absorption by preventing formation of insoluble Ca complex;

• enhances absorption, storage, & use of dietary iron; keeps Fe in reduced Fe++ ferrous form); activates some Fe-containing enzymes; improves Fe absorption up to 400%;

• synergists: Vitamin E, beta carotene, B-complex (esp. B-6, B-12, folic acid, B-5), testosterone, somatotrophin, & bioflavonoids;

• antagonized by: alcohol, air pollutants, industrial toxins, heavy metals, tobacco smoke; aspirin, antidepressants, diuretics, indomethacin, prednisone, estrogens;

• measurement: milligrams;

• optimum (SONA) average ranges from 150 to 1,000 mg/day; maintenance of tissue saturation requires about 10,000 mg/day;

• individual optimum must be determined for each individual; varies with age, life style, state of health or illness; normal "bowel tolerance" of 3,000 mg/day may increase 10 or 20x during infection & illness; ascorbic acid may increase urinary loss of water-soluble B-complex & minerals slightly;

• minimum (EC RDA) set at 60 mg/day;

• less than RDA: 40% of population, according to U.S. government survey; almost 100% of population, according to Irwin Stone & Linus Pauling;

• deficiency results from inadequate diet; inadequate absorption; increased need; increased metabolism; smoking (20 cigarettes/day requires 40% more C); increased loss;

• at risk: institutionalized elderly (95% deficient); chronically ill; long-term drug therapy; people on junk food diets; poor people; infants during fast growth (5 - 24 months); infants 6 months on cow’s milk (not breast fed); people with cancer (75% deficient);

• symptoms include: scurvy: sore, bleeding gums; loosening teeth; tender, aching joints; capillary degeneration accompanied by skin bruising (petechiae) & hemorrhaging; anemia resulting from breakdown in collagen & chondroitin sulfate metabolism; gangrene & death if left untreated;

• sub-clinical deficiency (sub-clinical scurvy) can manifest as bleeding of gums, impaired digestion, proneness to colds & infections, bruising, nosebleeds, slow wound healing, mild anemia, lowered disease resistance, premature aging & wrinkling of skin, lassitude, fatigue, drowsiness, insomnia, feeling run down; short of breath, muscle cramps, aching bones, joints, & muscles; loss of appetite;

• infant scurvy: irritability, anorexia, growth failure, tenderness of hips, anemia, delayed wound healing, drop in white blood count; onset rapid, & untreated, can quickly result in death;

• toxicity: non-toxic at 100x RDA, to levels approaching 3 kilograms/day for an adult; above upper limit (bowel tolerance) of body’s need for Vitamin C, diarrhea results;

• reversed by lowering dose;

• illness requires more Vitamin C than health, & increases "bowel tolerance"; gradual increase in daily consumption avoids diarrhea & mild gastric disturbances;

• "rebound scurvy" from suddenly stopping large doses has not been confirmed;

• 60 - 10,000 mg/day used routinely; 10,000 to 100,000 mg/day used in some conditions (some flu viruses, cancer);

• 300 mg/day or more speeds healing when taken before & after surgery & other injuries; speeds healing of skin grafts;

• decreases pain & swelling of arthritis, & frees joint movement; preserves integrity of intervertebral discs, preventing back problems;

• enhances immunity; protects against cancers; stimulates interferon production; blocks formation of nitrosamines from protein preservatives (nitrates & nitrites);

• increased intake protects against bladder cancer; relieves pain of cancer, preventing breakdown of natural endorphins;

• protects against esophageal, laryngeal, stomach, cervical, & lung cancer development;

• protects from some effects of smoking on health; eases withdrawal from drugs (heroin, barbiturates, methadone); reduces withdrawal symptoms during detox of alcoholics;

• high doses are effective against shingles (herpes zoster), herpes I & II, & all viruses and bacteria against which it has been tried; tissue saturation kills dormant viruses hiding inside cells;

• protects against oxygen starvation of cells (animals);

• high doses alleviate constipation; heals varicose veins & hemorrhoids;

• lowers high serum cholesterol levels; prevents damage to inside of arteries & formation of atherosclerotic plaque; improves survival rate after heart attack (free radical damage control);

• helps relieve gout; may help some aspects of diabetes; prevents cirrhosis of liver;

• neutralizes chlorine, nitrates & chloramines in water supply;

• appears to prevent cataracts;

• helps overcome male sterility (sperm clumping);

• enhances body’s use of minerals, especially zinc, magnesium, copper, & potassium;

• prevents & heals inflammation: urethritis, colitis, pancreatitis, conjunctivitis, & phlebitis;

• effective in leukemia & rheumatic heart disease;

• relieves eczema, canker sores, & fever blisters;

• large doses lower susceptibility, decrease severity & shorten duration of colds & flu;

• decreases histamine release, alleviating asthma, hay fever, allergies, niacin flush;

• prevents phosphate type kidney stones from forming;

• helps decrease mental illness & improve mental functioning;

• detoxifies lead, cadmium, mercury, iron, copper, arsenic, benzene, carbon monoxide, some pesticides, & many other toxic substances & drugs; detoxifies insect, spider, & snake bites; rabies; heals poison ivy & oak if taken internally + paste applied to skin;

• helps heal burns & wounds; helps victims of shock from injury, electricity, lightning; protects against frostbite, effects of cold temperature; protects against prickly heat & heat stroke;

• slows aging (requirement for C increases with age);

• doses of 5,000 mg/ day drastically reduce duration of whooping cough in children;

• doses from 1,000 - 30,000 mg/day can help mental lassitude, confusion & depression;

• megadose ascorbic acid, B-3, & high protein diet reduces psychotic episodes; depressive part of manic-depressive illness improved by C (combined with low vanadium);

• higher blood levels of ascorbic acid correlate with higher IQ’s;- recommended during pregnancy;

     These are nutrients that the body can make from other nutritional substances, but that, under some circumstances, it may be unable to make in quantities sufficient for optimum health.

     This category also includes substances whose vitamin status has not been clearly established, or substances which are not officially considered vitamins, but which appear to have benefits according to the testimonials of those who use them.

1. Inositol

General - water-soluble; muscle sugar;

• exists in 9 different, natural, optically inactive or active forms; only one optically active form, myo-inositol (muscle sugar), possesses biological activity;

• in plant cells, inositol occurs in the hexaphosphate form, phytic acid, which binds calcium, iron, & zinc, preventing their absorption from the digestive tract;

• inositol is a lipotropic factor — promotes the metabolism of fats in the liver; along with choline, it occurs in high concentrations in lecithin preparations;

• history: recognized as growth-promoting factor for yeast in 1928; recognized as cure for hair loss in mice in 1941;

• sources: heart, meats, fruit, milk, nuts, vegetables, whole grains; made in the body from glucose; present as phytate (hexa-phosphate inositol) in plants; supplements: lipotropic, B-complex, multi-vitamin, & multimineral-vitamin formulations;

• absorption: from small intestine; can also be synthesized from glucose by the body; can be synthesized by intestinal bacteria;

• antagonized by: coffee (which can deplete stored inositol), mineral oil & antibiotics;

• storage: in heart, brain, nerves, liver & muscle;

• excretion: through urine;

• metabolism: part of membrane phospholipids (phosphatidyl inositol); diabetics excrete much higher quantities of inositol, & their needs for it are higher;

• interactions: sulfonamides increase need;

• functions primarily at membrane level; as phosphatidyl inositol, has special response functions in various cells to external stimuli, e.g. hormones & neurotransmitters;

• has close relationship with choline, biotin, B-6, folic acid, B-5, & PABA;

• may be involved in membrane permeability to Ca++;

• may have special functions in nerve & secretory cells;

• may be involved in mobilizing fats from liver;

• may help control blood & tissue levels of cholesterol;

• may prevent fatty deposits in the heart, liver, & blood vessels

• may be involved in carbohydrate metabolism;

• essential for growth of liver & bone marrow cells;

• may have beneficial effects on nerves, alleviating anxiety & insomnia;

• may have role in sperm production;

• important in lecithin formation;

• measurement: in milligrams;

• optimum (SONA) averages not yet established;

• individual optimum must be determined on an individual basis;

• minimum (EC RDA) has not been set; inositol is not an essential nutrient, because it can be made within the body;

• deficiency of inositol may result from inadequate diet, inadequate absorption, inadequate endogenous production, abnormal bowel flora;

• at risk: people with diabetes mellitus; chronic renal failure; galactosemia; multiple sclerosis;

• symptoms may include: atherosclerotic plaques; high blood cholesterol & fat deposition in intestinal mucosa cells (gerbils); fatty degeneration of liver; nerve damage; irregularities in fat metabolism; dermatitis, weight loss, & death (in gerbils);

• subclinical deficiency symptoms may include alopecia (hair loss); constipation; eczema; saturated fats more detrimental than unsaturated in inositol deficiency; transport of lipoproteins from liver to blood may be impeded;

• toxicity: none associated even with high intake of inositol;

• 100 to 1,000 mg/day commonly used;

• lowers serum cholesterol, stops hair loss, & controls allergic reactions in the brain which result in abnormal behavior;

• part of lipotropic formula, for preventing fatty degeneration of liver & other inner organs;

• improves peripheral neuropathy & sensory nerve function in diabetics;

• stimulates contractions of intestinal tract, alleviating constipation;

• has sedative-like effect that may be beneficial in insomnia;

• may help to lower high blood pressure;

• may be helpful in schizophrenia, hypoglycemia, high copper, & low zinc;

General - water-soluble;

• choline can be produced in the body if diet contains sufficient protein;

• choline precursor is the essential amino acid methionine;

• a key component of lecithin;

• history: synthesized in 1866; identified as factor preventing fat accumulation in liver of dogs in 1937; biosynthesis pathway identified in 1941; route for incorporation into lecithin identified in 1956;

• sources: lecithin, egg yolks, soy beans, liver, fish, whole grains, legumes, fatty natural foods, cauliflower, cabbage; supplements: lipotropics, B-complex, multi-vitamin, multimineral-vitamin formulations;

• absorption: from duodenum & along entire small intestine;

• storage: higher quantities found in liver; distributed throughout body in cell membranes;

• metabolism: choline forms 10% of lecithin; synthesized from methionine, with help of B-12 & folic acid; carbohydrate loading increases liver triglyceride synthesis, & increases need for choline-containing lipoprotein envelopes; increased choline necessary during periods of rapid growth (infancy);

• interactions: tricyclic anti-depressants, anti-histamines, & anti-spasmodics interfere with acetylcholine function & short-term memory;

• main function is probably to make methyl groups available for biological reactions;

• part of lecithin (phosphatidylcholine) molecule, important component of all membranes, & main emulsifier (mixing oil & water) in body;

• part of the acetylcholine molecule, an important neurotransmitter;

• participates primarily in the metabolism of fats & nerve tissue;

• prevents deposition of fats in liver; essential for liver & kidney function;

• involved in: digestion, synthesis, & transport of fats to cell membranes in all tissues; metabolism of fats in bloodstream & kidneys;

• probably releases carnitine (required for fat metabolism) from tissue storage; other methyl donors (betaine, methionine, sarcosine) cannot do this;

• provides methyl groups for carnitine synthesis (made from trimethyl-lysine);

• keeps gall bladder cholesterol in solution, preventing formation of gall stones;

• vital for synthesis of neurotransmitter acetylcholine; maintains integrity of myelin sheath surrounding nerves;

• donates methyl groups (CH3) to make methionine from (toxic) homocysteine, betaine (which stores methyl groups), dimethylglycine (B-15) a metabolic intermediate; & other biological reactions;

• may aid in hormone production;

• measurement: in milligrams;

• optimum (SONA) average not yet established

• individual optimum needs to be individually determined;

• minimum (EC RDA) not yet established; choline is beneficial, but not an essential nutrient; can be made from amino acid serine (B-6 required);

• deficiency from lack of dietary lecithin, choline, or precursor amino acid methionine;

• symptoms include: fatty infiltration of liver (steatosis) & damage to liver cells (cirrhosis), nephritis, kidney damage, atherosclerosis, arteriosclerosis, & stomach ulcerations; loss of short-term memory;

• toxicity: "fishy" smell from choline ingestion results from bacteria in gut; choline may cause depression in a few people;

• 500 to 2,000 mg/day may be used

• fat solubilizing;

• patients on intravenous (i.v.) may require choline as part of i.v. nutrient formulation;

• oral administration of choline reduces high blood pressure slightly (may increase vagal tone, dilating arterioles); intravenous choline lowers blood pressure slightly;

• may help improve kidney function

• may help prevent (but not reverse) Alzheimer’s disease;

• improves short-term memory in some people;

• helpful in treating tardive dyskinesia, a side effect of anti-psychotic medications;

• may help in Parkinson’s disease, Huntington’s disease, Tourette’s syndrome; Friedreich’s ataxia;

• 1,000 - 1,500 mg/day controls manic symptoms in lithium-resistant manic-depressive disorder;

• reduces heart palpitations, dizziness, headaches, ear noises, constipation within 10 days (anecdotal); improves insomnia, visual disturbances, blood flow to eyes (anecdotal);

• more than doubled 3-year survival rate of patients hospitalized for atherosclerosis;

General - water-soluble;

• an, integral part of folic acid & procaine (Gerovital) molecule;

• essential for some bacteria, which make folic acid from it, but not for man;

• sources: liver, kidney, whole grains, bran; made by bacteria in healthy intestines; B-complex, multi-vitamin, & multimineral-vitamin supplements;

• absorption from small intestine;

• metabolism: nutritional benefit has not been confirmed;

• interactions: PABA antagonizes actions of sulfa drugs;

• necessary for synthesis of folic acid by bacteria in gut, which in turn stimulate synthesis of B-5;

• co-enzyme in amino acid metabolism, & in formation of red blood cells;

• together with pantothenic acid, PABA maintains pigmentation of hair;

• externally, PABA prevents sunburn & skin cancer from UV light;

• measurement: milligrams;

• optimum (SONA) average ranges not set;

• individual optimum must be determined for each individual case;

• minimum (EC RDA) not yet established; essential nutrient for bacteria, but not for humans;

• deficiency of PABA can only be achieved by oral administration of sulfa drugs;

• symptoms include: hypertension, anxiety, depression, digestive disorders including constipation; fatigue, nervousness, headache;

• toxicity symptoms: nausea, vomiting; long-term ingestion of high doses (more than 30 g./day) can be toxic to liver, heart, & kidneys;

• constituent of folic acid;

• helps utilization of pantothenic acid (B-5);

• topical application protects against skin cancer;

• topically applied sunscreen — prevents & soothes pain & damage of sunburn;

• said to soothe pain of burns even better than Vitamin E;

• useful for treating some parasitic diseases, including Rocky Mountain spotted fever;

• treatment of vitiligo, depigmentation of skin;

• certain schizophrenia-like behaviors discontinued on administration of 2 g of PABA/day;

• may prevent amines from forming hallucinogens; used in schizophrenia (2,000 mg/day);

• with folic acid, B-5, & biotin, PABA restores color to gray & graying hair (animals);

• used to treat Peyronie’s disease, a fibrous penis condition in post-middle aged men;

• used in lupus, apparently with some success;

General - water-soluble; dimethyl glycine;

• need in human nutrition has not been established; dimethyl glycine (DMG) is an inter- mediate in normal metabolism;

• despite ambiguity of its nutritional status, pangamic acid is accepted as a valuable dietary factor; France, Japan, Germany, Spain, & Russia use pangamic acid as an essential nutrient, with adult recommended allowances ranging from 25 - 50 mg/day;

• history: patented in 1949; introduced to natural foods trade in 1978;

• sources: apricot pit; brewer’s yeast, brown rice, whole grain, pumpkin & sesame seeds; made in body by normal metabolism; supplement: calcium pangamate;

• absorption from small intestine; circulates freely in the body;

• storage: minute amounts in liver & kidneys;

• excretion: through kidneys, bowels, sweat;

• can be converted into sarcosine & glycine by donating methyl groups;

• may have function in donating methyl groups for biological reactions;

• poorly understood, but claimed to increase blood tissue oxygenation, improve performance, & prevent insufficiency of tissue oxygen (hypoxia), which produces lactic acid build-up & fatigue;

• reports claim that pangamic acid is involved in regulation of lipid & carbohydrate metabolism, & in nervous system functions;

• measurement: milligrams;

• optimum (SONA) average ranges not set;

• individual optimum must be established for each individual;

• minimum (EC RDA) not set; not an essential nutrient for humans;

• deficiency: not noted;

• toxicity: not observed; doses 50,000x greater than the recommended 25 to 50 mg/day produce no ill effects; contaminants found in some preparations may be mutagenic;

• role of pangamic acid in human physiology still under investigation;

• empirical observations from the USSR indicate that pangamic acid can be useful to treat alcoholism, senility, diabetes, heart disease, high blood pressure, allergies, neuritis, hepatitis, autism, schizophrenia, & mild brain damage;

• 50 mg, twice/day of B-15 has helped chronic alcoholics lose their craving for alcohol;

• pangamic acid has been researched for treating autism & learning disorders in U.S. children, with positive results; Dr. Bernard Rimland (Institute for Child Behavior Research) in San Diego claims that it helps correct a wide range of behavior disturbances;

• athletes taking pangamic acid claim greater endurance; research finds lower lactic acid levels in skeletal & cardiac muscles (elevated lactic acid results from anaerobic respiration, & produces fatigue);

• may help hypercholesterolemia, asthma, atherosclerosis, emphysema, angina, circulatory problems &, according to Nobel Laureate Dr. Otto Warburg, may help prevent cancer by avoiding anaerobic fermentation in cells;

Of earth’s 92 naturally occurring elements, 11 bulk elements and 15 trace elements play essential roles in the human body.

Macro (bulk) elements

A requirement of 100 or more mg/day defines macro (bulk) elements. Carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), sulfur (S), phosphorus (P), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), sodium (Na), potassium (K), and chlorine (Cl) belong to this group. They form more than 99.5% of the body’s weight.

The first six bulk elements — C, H, O, N, S, & P — form the major nutrients: protein, lipids, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids, as well as water and air. C, H, O, and N are not supplemented. S is provided by the sulfur amino acids methionine, cysteine, and taurine, as well as preparations of garlic. P is not usually supplemented, because it is abundant in most foods. Junk foods contain an excess of P, which removes Ca and other minerals from the body.

Bulk elements make up large and definite parts of the human body, and their essentiality is obvious.

Micro (trace) minerals

Micro (trace) minerals, those required in doses of less than 100 mg/day, include arsenic (As), boron (B), chromium (Cr), cobalt (Co), copper (Cu), fluorine (F), iodine (I), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), molybdenum (Mo), nickel (Ni), selenium (Se), vanadium (V), silicon (Si), and zinc (Zn). Without the minute quantities of trace minerals, the human body could not function.

Arsenic and Nickel are not added to nutritional supplements, being so abundant in our food supply that deficiencies are virtually impossible. With arsenic, toxic levels are far more likely than deficiency. Fluorine is added to water supplies and dental preparations, but not to nutritional supplements. Silicon, whose importance to human health has been overlooked and underestimated, can be obtained from certain kinds of fiber and from the horsetail herb.

Trace elements function primarily as enzyme co-factors in a wide range of biological functions. They participate in biochemical reactions as catalysts, as associated factors of metal-containing enzymes, or as co-factors of co-enzymes (e.g. cobalt in Vitamin B-12).

In spite of the fact that their requirements are so small, trace elements play profound roles in health.Essentiality for trace elements is more difficult to determine than essentiality for bulk elements, and must meet certain specific criteria. These criteria were first spelled out by Dr. W. Mertz in 1970 as follows:

1. the element is present in all healthy tissues of all living things;

2. its concentration from one animal to another of the same species is fairly constant;

3. its removal from the body causes a reproducible physiological or structural abnormality;

4. its addition reverses or prevents that abnormality;

5. deficiency of the element is accompanied by specific biochemical changes; and

6. the biochemical changes are prevented or reversed when deficiency is prevented or reversed.

Elements which do not meet these criteria include aluminum (Al), cadmium (Cd), gold (Au), lead (Pb), mercury (Hg), silver (Ag), titanium (Ti), and zirconium (Zr).

Elements whose status has not been fully elucidated include barium (Ba), bromine (Br), rubidium (Rb), strontium (Sr), and tin (Sn). None of these appear at present to need to be supplemented.

Other elements may be present in the body or in food products due to natural occurrence or environmental pollution, but are not essential because they don’t meet the criteria spelled out by Dr. Mertz.

Meeting the body’s need for essential elements

It may be easy or difficult to obtain adequate quantities of elements in the diet. For instance, barium, nickel, arsenic, and tin may have biological roles, but their distribution in the biosphere far exceeds our requirement for them. Adequate quantities are obtained from consuming minute amounts of food.

Fluorine (F), found in bones, is a trace element which is not used in supplements. Some municipalities add it to drinking water, and dentists use it in special preparations to harden the teeth of their patients. Silicon (Si), also found in bones, is not usually supplemented, except as horsetail herb.

On the other hand, selenium, chromium, iodine, and zinc are more rare in the biosphere, and obtaining sufficient quantities of these elements can be a problem. For instance, vast expanses of food bearing lands are selenium-depleted, and therefore the foods grown on these lands will lack this mineral. Soil depletion of iodine, zinc, and other trace elements is also a concern, because soil mineral deficiency must result in mineral deficient plants harvested from these mineral deficient soils.

Many studies, including several conducted by the U. S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), have shown that mineral content of soils and of foods have decreased steadily during this century. Zinc deficiencies in plants occur in at least thirty of the continental forty-eight states of the USA. Chromium levels in the diets of North Americans and Western Europeans are only 10 to 35% of those in the Eastern world.

Besides low concentration of minerals in raw foods grown on mineral-poor soils, processing results in mineral losses. For example, when wheat is milled to produce white flour, the germ and bran are removed (and fed to pigs or thrown away). The discarded germ and bran contain 84% of the magnesium, 60% of the calcium, 71% of the phosphorus, 77% of the potassium, 76% of the iron, 78% of the zinc, 40% of the chromium, 86% of the manganese, 89% of the cobalt, 68% of the copper, 48% of the molybdenum, 16% of the selenium, and part of the boron, sulfur, and iodine present in the wheat kernel. In addition 50 to 81% of both the fat-soluble and water-soluble vitamins, 100% of the essential fatty acids, and 30% of the protein are also removed when wheat is processed into white flour. Similar nutrient losses occur when other foods, such as rice, corn, and sugar are refined.

Chemical additives in our diets also decrease the mineral content of our foods. For example, EDTA, a common preservative, binds several minerals, making them unavailable to the body. Phosphates added to baked goods, ice cream, soft drinks, and beer impair our absorption of iron, calcium, magnesium, and zinc.

MACRONUTRIENT (BULK) MINERALS

1. Calcium

General - macronutrient element; the bone mineral;

• most abundant body mineral, comprising over 1.5% of total body weight, about 1,200 grams (phosphorus content is about 680 grams);

• 99% of body’s calcium is in bones & teeth; remaining 1% distributed in soft tissues;

• Ca exchanged between bones, body fluids, & soft tissues; adequate daily intake prevents Ca loss from bones (osteoporosis);

• sources: fish flour, cooked bones, collards, kale, other green leafy vegetables, dairy, tofu, canned sardines, salmon, tuna, hard water; supplements: bone meal, dolomite, calcium salts & acid salts, multi-mineral, & multimineral-vitamin formulations;

• absorption from duodenum & upper part of small intestine; children absorb up to 75%; adults absorb 30 - 50% under best conditions, 10 - 30% under normal conditions;

• improved by: body’s need for Ca; Vitamin D (helps make carrier protein); acidity (decreases with age); presence of lactose, fructose, & ribose; phosphorus;

• antagonized by: oxalates (rhubarb, spinach); phytates (bran); dietary fat (forms insoluble Ca soaps); emotional instability; increased gut motility; lack of exercise;

• storage: mainly in bones & teeth; 1% in extra-cellular fluids & soft tissues;

• excretion: through urine & bile;

• metabolism: regulated by magnesium concentrations; balance between Ca & magnesium is important to health; pregnancy, lactation, & growth requires more Ca; high intake results in lower % absorption; lower intake gets higher % absorption;

• interactions: Ca carbonates neutralize stomach HCl, & require increased supply of this acid for absorption; high protein diet accelerates Ca loss;

• involved in formation of bones: Ca phosphate + Ca hydroxide (hydroxyapatite) crystals in a matrix of collagen embedded in gelatinous substance (mucopolysaccharides);

• involved in formation of teeth: middle layer (dentin) is like bone; outer layer (enamel) is denser hydroxyapatite crystals embedded in keratin; little change once formed; teeth contain 1% of body Ca;

• Ca is required for muscle contraction;

• essential for nerve conduction;

• essential for blood clotting: Ca in injured tissue stimulates release of phospholipid (thromboplastin- tp) from injured platelets; tp catalyzes conversion of a normal blood constituent (prothrombin) to thrombin (Th); Th aids in changing another blood component (fibrinogen) to fibrin, which is the clot;

• essential to heart beat;

• involved in energy production;

• required to maintain immune function;

• regulates cell membrane permeability; regulates cellular activities (messenger molecule);

• catalyst in many biochemical reactions: absorption of Vitamin B-12; activity of pancreatic lipase; secretion of insulin; formation & breakdown of neurotransmitter acetylcholine;

• measurement: in milligrams;

• optimum (SONA) ranges not yet set;

• individual optimum needs to be determined for each individual; Ca requirement increases with intake of protein, fat, alcohol, phosphorus (junk diets); smokers require increased amounts of Ca;

• minimum (EC RDA) set at 800 mg/day;

• less than RDA: 68% of population, according to a U.S. government survey;

• deficiency from inadequate intake; poor absorption; excess P; excess Mg; deficiency of Vitamin D or too little skin exposure to sunlight; excess dietary protein; overuse of antacids; transfusion of citrated blood; hypo-parathyroid; chronic kidney failure;

• high risk in elderly, users of aluminum-containing antacids, alcohol or cortisone; inactive people, those on low-calorie diets, those eating high protein diets, & those on high fiber diets; milk-intolerant people, pregnant women;

• symptoms include: muscle cramping, bone & tooth malformation, anxiety, allergies, heart palpitations, insomnia irritability, seizures, loss of cognitive function, weak bones & teeth, stunted growth;

• in infants, rickets, described under Vitamin D;

• chronic mild deficiency may produce cataract; osteoporosis (10 -50% of people over 50), (higher incidence in women because women lose Ca 3x as fast as men); spontaneous bone fractures (80% in women); {osteoporosis also involves poor diet, poor absorption, poor utilization, parathyroid gland irregularity, failure to synthesize collagen matrix, immobility, loss of estrogen}; osteomalacia: lack of sunshine, anti-convulsive drugs, successive pregnancies & lactation;

• severe deficiency: abnormal heartbeat, dementia, muscle spasms (tetany), convulsions;

• toxicity: from acute renal failure, excess Vitamin D (hypercalcemia), too little P, lack of activity, immobilization, excess thyroid, excess parathyroid, tuberculosis, malignancies, beryllium, & drugs including lithium, thiazides, & others;

• excess or deficiency of Mg or imbalance in Ca-Mg ratio may form kidney stones, cause soft tissue calcification, produce Mg deficiency & premenstrual syndrome;

• prevented by: presence of Mg in equal amounts;

• useful in treatment of osteoporosis;

• important in pregnancy & lactation;

• may be helpful in PMS, with evening primrose oil, Mg, Zn, & Vitamins B-3, B-6, & C;

• helps ease "growing pains" of children & adolescents; may help relieve muscle cramps;

• may be required by vegans on diets high in vegetable protein;

• female athletes & post-menopausal women require increased Ca (lower estrogen);

• useful for those intolerant to milk;

• Ca protects against toxicity from lead (Pb);

• along with Vitamin D, Ca (1,250 mg/day) may prevent colon cancer (slows colon cell division, detoxifies bile acids);

• useful for lowering blood pressure in some hypertensive individuals (1,500 mg/day); helps prevent cardiovascular disease; may lower high cholesterol in some individuals;

• anecdotal reports of Ca use as natural tranquilizer, alleviation of cramps in legs of pregnant women, & improved skin health (a Ca-dependent anti-oxidant enzyme is present in skin; Ca deficiency may speed skin aging)

• synergists: Vitamin D; magnesium; phosphate;

General - macronutrient element; the relaxation mineral; heart mineral;

• adult body contains about 25 grams of Mg;

• first studied in rats, & found associated with neuro-muscular abnormalities;

• human depletion of this mineral is more common than expected;

• many interrelationships with electrolytes, messengers, hormone receptors, Vitamin D metabolism, bone functions, etc.;

• plays a major role in cell functions in all organs;

• history: discovered in 1859; essentiality established for mice in 1926, for rats in 1932; essentiality for humans established in 1950; Mg deficiency first described clinically in humans in early 1950’s;

• sources: good: mineral ion in chlorophyll present in all green plants; abundant in whole foods (except milk) - soybeans, shrimp, wheat germ, whole grains, molasses, clams, cornmeal, spinach, oysters, crab, peas, liver, beef; poor: refined & processed foods; supplements: magnesium salt, acid salt, amino acid chelate, multi-mineral, multimineral-vitamin formulations;

• absorption from small intestine; about 50% of Mg in foods is absorbed (30% from high intake; 60% from lower intake);

• improved by: body’s need for Mg;

• lost by: some drugs; fasting, low phosphate, low potassium, high calcium, & high Mg; stress, disease, sweat, excess fiber; alcohol, diuretics; vomiting of gastric juice;

• storage: more than 65% of Mg found in bone; level of intracellular Mg in muscle & liver = 7x that in blood;

• excretion: excreted & regulated through kidneys;

• metabolism: controlled by thyroid gland;

• interactions: diuretics, drugs toxic to kidneys, cortico-steroids; heart drug digitalis induces Mg deficiency;

• catalyst in several hundred reactions, many in energy production facilities of cells (mitochondria);

• required in all reactions that involve release or expenditure of energy; ATP production;

• required in almost all reactions involving carbohydrate, lipid, protein, & nucleic acid metabolism;

• involved in reactions related to synthesis, degradation, & stability of genetic material (DNA);

• fulfills vital role in nerve transmission & muscle relaxation;

• important to maintain electrical stability of cells, membrane integrity, regulation of blood vessel tone; regulates Ca entrance into cells; regulates heartbeat;

• necessary to maintain acid-alkaline balance of body fluids;

• important role in bone physiology & tooth enamel formation;

• plays part as co-factor or catalyst in at least 300 enzyme reactions;

• necessary to transform essential fatty acids to prostaglandins;

• plays role in cold adaptation;

• measurement: milligrams;

• optimum (SONA) set at 300 mg/day

• individual optimum needs to be determined for each individual case; best balance between calcium & magnesium is about 1 : 1;

• minimum (EC RDA) set at 300 mg/day;

• less than RDA: 70% of population, according to a U.S government survey; imbalance in Mg : calcium ratio is widespread because of over-consumption of Mg-poor dairy products & Ca-rich formulations;

• deficiency from inadequate diet, poor absorption, diarrhea, inflammatory bowel disease, gluten intolerance, short bowel syndrome; impaired kidney reabsorption, hormonal disorders, genetic conditions; alcoholism, burns, trauma, protein-energy malnutrition; low phosphate, low potassium, low calcium; increased dietary requirement;

• at risk: elderly, people on low-calorie diets, diabetics, people taking diuretics or digitalis, alcoholics, pregnant women, those doing regular & strenuous exercise;

• symptoms include: muscle ache, tremor, spasm, & cramp; low blood sugar, irritability, fatigue, depression, anxiety, sleeplessness;

• extreme deficiency: growth impairment, cardiovascular disturbances, Ca deposits in kidneys, heart, & joints; calcium deposition in soft tissues; loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, confusion, tremors, loss of coordination, cardiac arrhythmia;

• toxicity: excess (more than 3 grams) causes diarrhea; not toxic if kidneys are normal; in kidney failure, high Mg can result in coma & heart failure;

• protective against heart disease & helpful in treatment of high blood pressure; improves survival chances after heart attack; prevents ischemic heart disease;

• may be helpful in treating PMS, along with zinc, B-6, B-3, & C;

• appears to help prevent oxalate kidney stones, with B-6; not effective with gall stones;

• might have positive effect on depression, through its role in neurotransmitter synthesis;

• effective in treatment of convulsions in pregnant women, premature labor, & pre-eclampsia (high blood pressure, swelling {edema} of tissues, protein in urine), & eclampsia (convulsions, coma);

• treats neuro-muscular & nervous disorders due to Mg deficiency;

• treats Mg deficiency-induced respiratory muscle weakness;

• can be used to induce diarrhea (cure constipation);

• useful, with calcium in the treatment of cramps;

• prevents arrhythmias;

• replenishes loss of Mg from diarrhea, prolonged sweating, diuretic use, & alcoholism;

• part of program to alleviate cramps & cravings of premenstrual syndrome (PMS);

• synergists: Vitamin B-6; calcium; phosphorus;

General - macronutrient element; electrolyte; "alkalinizing" mineral;

• electrolytes regulate fluid levels & acid-alkaline balance throughout body, both in & outside cells;

• adult body contains about 270 grams of K;

• whole foods contain 10 times more K than Na; addition of table salt (NaCl) lowers K/Na ratio; body’s normal Na/K ratio is about 2/1; Na/K inside cells is 1/10; Na/K outside cells is 28/1;

• body by nature is better able to hold on to sodium than to K because natural foods are high in K but low in Na; modern diets have high Na & low K, leading to K depletion & Na excess;

• K mostly intra-cellular (Na & Cl mostly extracellular);

• history: importance of K in blood pressure observed in 1959, confirmed in 1983;

• sources: best: watercress, parsley, apple cider vinegar, olives, bananas; good: whole, natural, unprocessed foods; potato peels; supplements: potassium salts (chloride, gluconate), multi-mineral, multimineral-vitamin supplements;

• absorption from small intestine; 90% absorbed;

• antagonized by: diuretics may result in serious loss of K;

• storage: K stored mostly in muscles & nerves, but all cells concentrate K; increased muscle mass (athletes) increases body K up to 50%; aldosterone increases loss of K; K is not well conserved by body; aspirin increases loss;

• excretion: through kidneys (7%/day);

• metabolism: K intake should exceed Na intake by 10x ; blood K rises when there is tissue proteins & glycogen breakdown (catabolism) or K leaving cells (acidosis) such as during diarrhea; blood K drops when tissue or glycogen is being formed (anabolism) or K entering cells (alkalosis); low blood sugar & stress increase K loss;

• food processing (canning, salting, flavoring) removes K & adds Na to foods;

• Mg helps keep K inside cells;

• interactions: diuretics & many drugs result in K loss from the body; high Na causes imbalance of K in cells; corticosteroid (aldosterone);

• regulates fluid, electrolyte, & acid-base balance in body;

• required for growth (1 gram for every pound gained);

• catalyst of many reactions inside cells, esp. protein, & release of energy; high sodium levels interfere with protein synthesis (important for athletes & body builders);

• essential to convert glucose molecules into glycogen energy reserves;

• required to maintain the electric potential across all cell membranes; this helps protect cells against invasion by organisms & foreign chemicals;

• K may be involved in bone calcification;

• prevents sodium from entering cells & interfering with protein metabolism; prevents Na-induced water retention (edema) & damage within cells of some people;

• necessary for muscle building; muscle cells contain 6x as much K as Na; increases muscle strength;

• maintains osmotic pressure & acid-base balance;

• maintains electrical potential across cell membranes (along with sodium);particularly important in nerve transmission & muscle contraction;

• plays role in release of insulin from pancreas;

• along with Mg, K acts as muscle relaxant (opposite to Ca);

• helps body get rid of excess water (opposite to Na, which leads to water retention);

• antagonized by: excess Na can interfere with K’s functions in protein metabolism, nerve transmission, muscle contraction, glucose absorption, nutrient transport;

• measurement: milligrams, grams;

• optimum between 2,000 & 6,000 mg/day of K, in K/Na ratio about 10 : 1;

• individual optimum needs to be determined for each individual case;

• minimum (EC RDA) not yet established;(US RDA) for K is about 2,000 mg/day for adults;

• less than RDA: not measured; K depletion increases with age by over-use of Na salt;

• deficiency from vomiting (bulimia), sweating (especially lose K), & diarrhea (especially in children); use of diuretics & digitalis, prolonged use of laxatives, severe protein-calorie malnutrition, surgery, wounds, burns; diabetic acidosis, GI disorders, cancer, adrenal tumors; athletes may lose up to 800 mg of K in sweat during 3 or 4 hours of training;

• symptoms of K deficiency include muscle weakness, poor intestinal tone, abdominal bloating, inability to concentrate urine; heart abnormalities, irregular heartbeat (arrhythmia), & weakness of respiratory muscles; mental confusion, depression, apathy, anorexia, nervous disorders, insomnia, paralysis; poor digestion; labored breathing; high blood pressure;

• sub-clinical deficiency: lowered glycogen reserves, tendency to higher blood sugar levels, increased insulin need (even overproduction), & increased fat production & deposition;

• toxicity: from excess intake (above 17 grams/day), dehydration, adrenal insufficiency, or inability to concentrate urine (elderly); results in disturbed muscular co-ordination;

• severe cases: cardiac arrest, usually from kidney failure;

• reverse K deficiency induced by diuretics & other drugs;

• replenish K lost by athletes through sweat during exercise & competition; increase K necessary for muscle (protein) building;

• used to treat allergies & to alleviate symptoms of rheumatic & arthritic conditions;

• used to treat infant colic;

• helpful in diabetes to reduce blood pressure & blood sugar levels;

• used to treat headache due to allergy;

• K helps prevent high blood pressure & strokes; may reverse high blood pressure;

• breaks up lymph congestion;

• as part of a complete program, K is used in nutritional treatment of cancer;

• K supplementation is not recommended for people with impaired kidney function, untreated Addison’s disease, or taking digitalis-type drugs;

General - macronutrient elements; electrolyte minerals;

• electrolytes regulate fluid levels & acid-alkaline balance throughout body; both in & outside cells;

• body contains about 140 grams of Cl; 140 grams of Na;

• Cl & Na mostly extra-cellular;

• sources: Na & Cl in table salt, soy, tamari, salted foods, most prepared foods; supplements: betaine HCl, amino acid HCl, not usually included in multi-mineral & multimineral-vitamin supplements; excess Na greater problem than deficiency, due to overuse of table salt;

• absorption from stomach & small intestine;

• improved by: Na absorption triggered by aldosterone (adrenal steroid hormone);

• antagonized by: vomiting (especially loss of Cl); water loss in diarrhea;

• storage: Na & Cl mostly stored & concentrated in extra-cellular fluids;

• excretion: excess excreted in urine;

• metabolism: must balance Na & Cl intake; concentrations regulated by kidneys, under influence of adrenal steroid hormone (aldosterone);

• Na & Cl regulate fluid, electrolyte, & acid-base balance in body;

• Cl — part of stomach acid (HCl), which begins digestion of proteins & kills bacteria; allows blood to carry carbon dioxide; necessary for growth of bone & connective tissue;

• Na — main extra-cellular ion; determines water balance;

• along with K, Na maintains the electric charge of membranes surrounding all cells;

• keeps minerals dissolved in body fluids, preventing their deposition;

• necessary for HCl production in the stomach;

• along with Cl, Na keeps blood & lymph fluids healthy;

• Na helps keep calcium in solution;

• measurement: milligrams, grams;

• optimum K/Na ratio about 10 : 1; Na & Cl: optimum ratio = 1 : 1;

• individual optimum needs to be determined according to individual condition;

• minimum (US RDA) 115 mg/day of Na maintains Na balance (average intake is 3,000 to 7,000 mg/day); recommended Cl intake suggested as 1,700 mg for adult (275 - 1,400 for children, depending on age);

• less than minimum: not usual; over-use of Na salt much more common;

• deficiency from from vomiting, sweating, & diarrhea;

• symptoms include: for Na & Cl, thirst; weakness, nausea, confusion; Cl deficiency unlikely unless Na also deficient;

• toxicity: overuse of NaCl associated with stomach cancers in Japan, & other cancers according to clinical observations; Na toxicity associated with high blood pressure (hypertension) & water retention (edema), especially when combined with K deficiency; may lead to heart disease;

• replace Cl lost by vomiting & bulimic regurgitation;

• Na may help prevent & treat cramps & heat strokes;

• low Na diets used clinically to prevent or relieve symptoms of bacterial poisoning (toxemia), water retention (edema), protein in urine (proteinuria), & blurred vision;

General - trace mineral;

• long known to be essential for plants; recently recognized as important for humans;

• found in antibiotic molecules made by Streptomyces species;

• history: B discovered in 1910; confirmed essential for plants in 1923; indications of essentiality for humans between 1981 & 1984;

• sources: best: vegetables, fruit, seeds, nuts; poor: dairy, fish, meat, fowl, refined & processed foods; supplements: boron salts, multi-mineral, multimineral-vitamin;

• absorption rapid from intestinal tract; little known about mechanism of absorption; average adult intake of B varies between 1.7 & 7 mg/day;

• storage: highest concentration in bone; high concentrations also in thyroid & parathyroid glands;

• excretion: through urine (90% of single dose within 1 week);

• not yet fully elucidated;

• known to be important for growth of plants;

• thought to be important for growth & development of animals;

• thought to have important role in bone construction & density;

• thought to influence action of parathyroid hormone, indirectly influencing metabolism of Ca, P, Mg, & Vitamin D-3

• important in trace quantities for calcium uptake;

• complexes with sugars, polysaccharides, adenosine-5-P, Vitamins B-6, B-2 & C, & genetic material (pyrimidine nucleotides);

• inhibits B-6 & B-2 requiring enzymes (oxido-reductases); by binding to active site, inhibits digestive enzyme (chymotrypsin) & 2 other enzymes;

• may play a direct role in the functioning of membranes;

• measurement: milligrams;

• optimum (SONA) average not yet set; suggested: 3 mg/day for adults;

• minimum (EC RDA) not yet set;

• individual optimum needs to be determined for each individual case;

• deficiency of B have not been observed or recorded;

• symptoms may include: bone loss; symptoms & conditions due to low Ca & low Mg; depressed growth; increases symptoms of Mg deficiency (rats), & symptoms even more marked if amino acid methionine is marginal;

• toxicity: none observed or recorded in humans given up to 6 mg/day;

• acute toxicity symptoms include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, dermatitis, & lethargy; loss of B-2 in urine;

• 3 mg/day of B decrease loss of Ca & Mg through urine, & double the levels of an estrogen metabolite which prevents bone calcium loss; given 3 mg of B for 8 days, post-menopausal women lost 40% less Ca, 33% less Mg, slightly less P in urine; helps prevent post-menopausal osteoporosis;

• increases testosterone production in post-menopausal women; suggestion that B helps build muscle not yet confirmed;

• helps in Mg deficiency (rats), & F toxicity (rabbits);

• B may help to heal broken bones more quickly;

• elderly may benefit from boron because of increased difficulty absorbing Ca;

• Mg retention by boron may help prevent ischemic & other forms of heart disease; also protective of Mg status in those on diuretic drugs & digitalis;

• may help decrease symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis when given with Mg;

• synergists: Ca & Mg for preventing loss of bone Ca;

General - trace mineral;

• Cr content of foods consumed in Western countries is low;

• tissue levels of chromium decrease steadily with age;

• healthy body contains about 9.0 milligrams (U.S. body content is only 1.7 mg);

• history: identified to be essential in mammals in 1959; first associated with human deficiency in 1966;

• sources: best: brewer’s yeast, liver; good: meat, cheese, legumes, beans, peas, whole grains, black pepper, thyme, molasses; poor: fruits, processed & refined foods: supplements: Cr salts, acid salts, picolinates, niacinates, amino acid chelates, GTF chromium, multi-mineral, & multimineral-vitamin supplements;

• absorption from small intestine; 1 to 2% of dietary Cr salts, but 10 to 25% of GTF chromium is absorbed; GTF is Cr-niacin-amino acid complex;

• improved by: balanced multimineral-vitamin formula;

• storage: mainly in skin, muscle & fat; also in hair, making hair analysis a reliable way of measuring Cr status;

• excretion: mainly in urine;

• metabolism: need increases with high sugar diet;

• improves glucose intolerance, which is decreased ability to remove sugar from blood for cell nourishment, a condition characteristic of diabetes;

• involved in metabolism of glucose; necessary for energy production;

• component of glucose tolerance factor, involved in glucose metabolism; binds insulin to cells, potentiating its action in allowing cells to take in glucose; indirectly affects blood fat levels; stabilizes blood sugar levels;

• stimulates liver enzymes involved in synthesis of cholesterol & fatty acids;

• Cr lowers high cholesterol & increases beneficial HDL in 50% of people;

• involved in protein synthesis; increases lean muscle mass;

• measurement: micrograms;

• optimum (SONA) average not yet established; suggested 200 µg/day for adults;

• individual optimum needs to be individually determined; requirement increases with increasing sugar consumption;

• minimum (US RDA) set at 200 µg/day;

• less than RDA: not measured; clinical estimates suggest 80 to 95% of population gets less than RDA;

• deficiency from inadequate intake; excess sugar consumption; Cr absent from arteries of people with coronary heart disease; poor absorption; increased requirement;

• at risk: aging & pregnant people; those on diets high in refined foods; those on strenuous exercise programs;

• symptoms include: lowered insulin activity; abnormal blood sugar levels, producing mental & emotional disorder, irritability, lassitude, weakness & fatigue; glucose levels characteristic of diabetes; impaired growth, elevated cholesterol, fatty deposits in arteries, decreased life span, decreased sperm count, decreased fertility;low plasma Cr levels indicate coronary artery disease;

• chronic deficiency may result in fatty deposits in heart & blood vessels, & elevated cholesterol; increased incidence of diabetes; decreased glycogen reserves; retarded growth; disturbed amino acid metabolism; lean tissue wasting; high blood fats;

• toxicity: trivalent amino acid chelates are non-toxic; hexavalent toxic (industrial) Cr salts;

• reversed by: Vitamin C converts hexavalent salts to trivalent;

• usual therapeutic dose ranges from 100 to 1,000 mcg/day;

• may reduce diabetics’ needs for insulin; enhances insulin’s ability to attach to cell membrane receptors;

• reverses diabetic symptoms, including high blood glucose , weight loss, & nerve disorders; improves glucose tolerance; useful in treating hypoglycemia;

• lowers high cholesterol in 50% of those with it; increases beneficial HDL & lowers detrimental LDL; protects against heart disease in Cr-deficient people;

• improves glucose tolerance even in healthy, younger people;

• useful in treatment of hypoglycemia, increasing low blood sugar;

• helps body make better use of glucose; prevents tissue-damaging reactions of glucose with proteins in membranes, & perhaps also with nucleic acids;

• increases lean muscle mass in athletes;

General - trace mineral;

• essential mineral in cobalt-containing Vitamin B-12, a mainly animal sourced vitamin;

• may also fulfill functions as part of other Co-containing enzymes;

• Co content of foods reflects soil content of Co;

• adult body contains about 10 mg of Co;

• history: pernicious anemia always fatal until 1926; essentiality for humans established in 1935; identified as part of Vitamin B-12 in 1948; heavy beer drinkers heart failure due to Co identified in 1966;

• sources: liver, kidney, oyster, clam, beef; fish, foods of animal origin; supplements: Vitamin B-12, multi-vitamin, multimineral-vitamin formulations;

• absorption from upper part of small intestine (jejunum); shares absorption path with Fe; poorly absorbed, most of Co passes through intestines unabsorbed;

• improved by: gastric juice; Vitamins C, B-2, & B-3, & Mn help activate B-12; presence of Ca helps release Co-containing Vitamin B-12 from protein bonds;

• antagonized by lack of: gastric juice, intrinsic factor, or Vitamins B-2 & B-3, Mn, & Ca; presence of iron;

• storage: in liver, kidney, pancreas, & spleen as B-12; also in red blood cells & plasma; 2 mg of Co stored in liver lasts about 6 years;

• excretion: 85% excreted through kidney;

• metabolism: body guards its supply of Co-containing B-12; deficiency takes long time (years) to develop;

• Co functions identical with Vitamin B-12 functions;

• necessary for normal functioning & maintenance of red blood cells;

• keeps the anti-oxidant glutathione, which is an essential part of several enzymes involved in carbohydrate metabolism, biologically active;

• maintains healthy function of brains & nervous system;

• may help metabolize proteins & fatty acids vital to healthy nerve fibers;

• necessary for metabolism of folic acid;

• other possible enzyme functions of Co not yet elucidated;

• measurement: micrograms;

• optimum (SONA) not set; injections of 1,000 µg/day are common for elderly;

• individual optimum needs to be determined for each individual case according to age & deficiency symptoms of B-12;

• minimum (EC RDA) not yet established; average daily intake is 7 to 30 µg/day;

• less than RDA: no official figures, but 30% (same as B-12 deficiency) is estimate; more common among elderly people;

• deficiency from strict vegetarian diet; other causes of B-12 deficiency: poor diet, poor absorption, increased requirement;

• symptoms include: B-12 deficiency symptoms; pernicious anemia; long-term deficiency can result in permanent nervous system damage; myelin sheath becomes thin;

• toxicity: not observed, even with high doses of Co-containing Vitamin B-12;

• inorganic Co used to stabilize beer can be toxic at high intakes, resulting in enlarged thyroid; in animals, Co chloride results in too many blood cells (polycythemia) & increase in number of bone marrow cells (hyperplasia) due to increased production of hormone (erythropoietin) stimulating red blood cell formation; symptoms may include paleness, fatigue, diarrhea, heart palpitations, numbness in fingers & toes;

• Co + alcohol synergize to produce cardiac problems in heavy beer drinkers;

• reversed by: reducing Co intake; high protein diet helps protect against toxicity;

• prevention of pernicious anemia, & symptoms of B-12 deficiency;

• vasodilation effect of high Co intake is used in treating high blood pressure;

General - trace mineral;

• more than 12 enzymes known to contain Cu;

• adult body contains 75 to 150 micrograms of Cu;

• food content of Cu reflects soil content;

• typical diets contain 1 mg/day or less Cu, half of recommended intake;

• history: iron-resistant anemia in animals on milk diet identified in 1900; Cu requirement to reverse Fe-resistant anemia in animals established in 1928; Cu deficiency syndrome in humans identified in 1966;

• sources: oysters, shellfish, liver, cherries, nuts, chocolates; supplements: zinc-copper salts & amino acid chelates, multi-mineral, multimineral-vitamin formulations;

• absorption rapidly from stomach & upper intestine; depends on Cu-binding protein (metallothionein) which also absorbs cadmium & zinc; 25 - 40% of dietary Cu is absorbed;

• improved by: amino acids & fresh vegetables;

• antagonized by: mercury, lead, sulfides, raw meat, & silver; cadmium & Zn compete for absorption sites; high levels of Vit. C; molybdenum antagonizes Cu absorption;

• storage: in muscle, skin, bone marrow, skeleton, liver, & brain; most concentrated in liver & brain; circulates in blood, bound to protein complex; released from liver into blood by adrenal gland function;

• excretion: by liver through bile; EDTA & acetyl cysteine increase Cu excretion, but other minerals as well; penicillamine increases Cu excretion 200-fold, but removes other minerals also;- excretion: through urine;

• metabolism: intake must be balanced with zinc & iron intake; imbalances may be common; infection & inflammation result in transient increase in serum Cu;

• interactions: Cu is elevated by estrogens; deficiency of zinc accentuates Cu excess; smoking, anti-convulsants, corticosteroids increase plasma copper levels; long-term, corticosteroids decrease plasma Cu; aspirin, phenylbutazone, indomethacin, & dexamethazone tie up Cu in stomach, make it unavailable for absorption, & may lead to inflammation & ulcers;

• necessary for the synthesis of white & red blood cells; stimulates synthesis of red blood pigment components;

• aids in iron absorption, preventing anemia; releases stored iron from liver; plays role in oxidizing ferrous (+2) to ferric(+3) iron;

• plays important anti-oxidant role, in preventing destructive oxygen (superoxide) and Fe free radicals from being formed; anti-oxidant & anti-inflammatory actions;

• protects against lung tissue damage (emphysema) resulting from pollutants & smoking;

• helps oxidize Vitamin C; with Vitamin C, Cu activates enzyme (lysyl oxidase) involved in synthesis of elastin (arterial wall protein) & collagen (connective tissue protein);

• involved in protein synthesis & tissue healing;

• involved in metabolism of neurotransmitters (catecholamines);

• necessary for the body’s reactions to acute stress; acts as body’s fire extinguisher;

• part of enzyme which converts amino acid tyrosine into (tanning) pigment melanin;

• necessary for mineralization of bones & skeleton;

• used in energy metabolism & fatty acid oxidation (oxidative phosphorylation);

• part of superoxide dismutase, enzyme which protects cells against oxygen free radical damage;

• required to synthesize phospholipids, needed to form nerve sheath (myelin);

• Cu is necessary in temperature regulation, cholesterol metabolism, immune function, heart function, regulation of glucose metabolism;

• may protect against cancer, cardiovascular disease, arthritis, and immune deficiency;

• measurement: milligrams;

• optimum (SONA) not yet set; optimum zinc/copper ratio is between 8 : 1 and 15 : 1;

• individual optimum needs to be determined for each individual case; Cu need increases with increased Vitamin C consumption, increased stress, & increased zinc;

• minimum (EC RDA) not yet established; suggested intake is 2 - 3 mg/day; given intravenously, 0.25 mg/day achieves copper balance;

• less than RDA: no official estimate, but estimates indicate that 90% of population is lacking biologically available Cu; average U.S. intake from foods is 0.76 mg/day;

• deficiency from inadequate intake, plus stress; inadequate absorption (high Vitamin C or zinc, alkali, bypass); decreased utilization; increased loss (diarrhea, celiac & Crohn’s disease, sprue, chelation therapy); increased requirement (premature birth, pregnancy, lactation);

• symptoms include: anemia; loss of bone & brittleness (osteoporosis); slowed growth in children; hair loss; enlarged heart, weak arteries (from elastin defect), decreased beneficial HDL cholesterol, increased total cholesterol; depigmentation of hair & skin; decreased tensile strength of skin; degeneration of nervous system, with abnormal behavior; low body temperature (hypothermia) due to lowered thyroid function; damage to lung tissues (emphysema); reproductive failure; ulcer patients have 23% less Cu in their body;

• increased cholesterol; shortened red cell life span; decreased glucose tolerance; decreased glutathione activity; increased oxygen consumption of heart tissue; decreased formation of immune cells; increased liver iron; altered brain wave patterns;

• combined Cu & Se deficiency is factor in development of cardiovascular disease;

• toxicity: inorganic Cu from old plumbing inhibits many enzymes; nausea & vomiting; Wilson’s disease accumulates Cu in liver, kidneys, brain, & cornea; 25 mg/day can be toxic;

• elevated Cu found in some cases of paranoia, schizophrenia, hyperactivity, hypertension, PMS, toxemia of pregnancy, insomnia, senility, & hypoglycemia appear to be consequences rather than causes of these conditions;

• toxicity reversed by: zinc + manganese in ratio of 20 : 1;

• 2 - 5 mg/day us usual therapeutic dose; 10 - 35 mg/day as amino acid chelate would probably be safe indefinitely; Cu sulfate is potent emetic—5 to 10 mg dose results in nausea;

• may help prevent cancer (anti-oxidant function);

• may raise HDL, lower cholesterol, & prevent aneurisms & rupture of arteries;

• may protect against & help diminish osteo & rheumatoid arthritis (anti-oxidant effect);

• may boost immune function;

• given as part of balanced supplement;

• copper bracelet worn traditionally to treat inflammatory diseases, esp. rheumatoid & osteo arthritis; results not yet confirmed by research;

General - trace element; anti-goitre (thyroid) element; "metabolic rate" element;

• I content of foods reflects I content of soil and/or water:

• healthy adult body contains about 15 - 30 mg of I;

• major present source of I is iodized table salt; commercial foods made with non-I salt;

• history: iodine discovered in 1811; seaweed used to treat goitre in 1816; essentiality for humans established in 1850; iodine found in thyroid gland in 1895; cabbage found to produce goitre in rabbits in 1928; iodized salt available nationwide by 1940; thyroid hormones identified by 1953;

• sources: sea weeds, esp. dulse &kelp; sea food, thyroid gland; iodized salt, food grown on iodine-rich soil; supplements: kelp, potassium iodide, potassium gluconate, multi-mineral, multimineral-vitamin formulations;

• absorption from stomach, upper small intestine, & throughout entire intestine;

• antagonized by: sulfur-containing cruciferous vegetables (cabbage, broccoli);

• storage: 75% is in the thyroid gland; also concentrated in ovarian tissue; I-containing hormone circulates throughout entire body; removed by salivary glands & recycled; body stores several months’ supply of I;

• excretion: removed through mother’s breast milk; excreted through kidneys;

• metabolism: increased need for I on diets high in cabbage, Brussels sprouts, turnips, brocolli, cauliflower; metabolism of I in thyroid needs Vitamin B-2; copper & zinc necessary for conversion of thyroxin into active hormone (triiodothyronine);

• interactions: bromide, thiocyanate, perchlorate compete with I for transport;

• intimately associated with thyroid function, through its presence in the thyroid hormones thyroxine (76% iodine) & triiodothyronine — I-containing amino acids that control the metabolic rate of the entire body;

• stabilizes & controls virtually all biochemical reactions in the body;

• appears to control calcium & phosphorus metabolism, as well as starch metabolism;

• helps assimilate Ca, silicon, F, Cl, Mg, Mn, & other elements;

• regulates growth, development, & basal metabolic rate; essential for reproduction;

• diiodothyronine may regulate ovary functions;

• important for both physical and mental development;

• can increase metabolic rate by as much as 30% for 6 days by a single dose;

• increases oxygen uptake & body temperature, heat loss, & loss of body tissue;

• helps metabolize excess fats;

• necessary for protein synthesis;

• necessary to convert carotene into Vitamin A;

• improves absorption from intestine of carbohydrates needed for energy;

• helps provide the metabolic energy necessary for detoxifying metabolic & environmental toxins in the tissues throughout the body;

• enhances performance of all glands &organs in the body;

• measurement: micrograms;

• optimum (SONA) not yet set;

• individual optimum needs to be determined for each individual case;

• minimum (EC RDA) set at 150 µg/day;

• less than RDA: rare in affluent countries, because of use of iodized salt; common around the world;

• deficiency from iodine-deficient food supply; may result from salt-restricted diet used to treat high blood pressure; diet high in commercially processed foods (non-I salt);

• symptoms include: lowered metabolic rate, improper cell growth & differentiation, impaired mental processes, mental retardation, deafness; lowered vitality; inability to think clearly; low resistance to infections; loss of control of mouth (drooling); defective teeth, slow development of sexual organs; impotence, sterility; cold hands & feet; hypoglycemia;

• deficiency of I linked to breast cancer; estrogen in absence of I speeds abnormal, precancerous breast cell growth (dysplasia);

• goiter: swollen neck from enlargement of thyroid gland; fatigue, susceptibility to colds, gain weight easily; deficiency during pregnancy: cretinism in the newborn;

• toxicity: less than 2,000 mg of elemental I can be fatal; more than a few mg/day may lead to acne; more than 50 mg/day may cause reversible inflammation of salivary (parotid & submaxillary) glands;

• symptoms include metallic taste & sores in mouth, swollen salivary glands, diarrhea, & vomiting;

• usual therapeutic dose is 100 - 1,000 mg/day;

• alleviates symptoms of deficiency, including goiter;

• has been used to relieve pain and soreness associated with fibrocystic breasts, which may be a symptom of I deficiency;

• diiodothyronine, plus Mg, Cu, & Mn relieves sore & heavy breasts, & normalizes vaginal mucus; may also help keep cholesterol from forming, keep skin unwrinkled, & keep breasts soft;

• 100 mg/day of I as potassium iodide for 7 to 14 days can protect from thyroid cancer due to uptake of radioactive iodine from nuclear fallout, by saturating thyroid tissue;

• used in mucus-loosening (mucolytic) agents available by prescription;

• externally, used to disinfect non-treated country water; excellent external antiseptic for wounds;

General - trace mineral; blood mineral; oxygen carrier; backbone of energy production;

• adult body contains 4 to 5 grams, roughly the amount in a small nail;

• oxygen-carrying pigment of red blood cells (hemoglobin) accounts for 50% of body Fe;

• very old in evolution; probably first metal associated with protein, at beginning of oxygen-using (aerobic) life forms;

• history: symptoms of iron deficiency anemia described by Egyptian physicians in 1500 B.C.; recognized as part of body tissues in 1713; use of Fe to treat "chlorosis" (Fe deficiency anemia) in humans described in mid-1700’s; value of Fe in treating Fe deficiency anemia established in 1932;

• sources: best : meats, esp. blood, liver & kidney; good: molasses, egg yolks, whole cereals, Fe cooking pots, clams, fish spinach, asparagus, prunes, ; poor: fortified Fe in cereals is inorganic & poorly absorbed; supplements: Fe salts, acid salts, amino acid chelates, multi-mineral, multimineral-vitamin formulations;

• absorption from upper part of small intestine; inefficient process; optimal Fe absorption from animal sources is about 15%; absorption from plant sources is only about 4%; Fe absorption rate governed by body’s need: an iron-anemic person may absorb 50 - 60% of iron present in food;

• improved by: acids (citric, ascorbic, hydrochloric, etc.); Cu, B-complex vitamins; sufficient stomach HCl; protein; Vitamin E, calcium, manganese, Vitamin A;

• antagonized by: phytic acid; oxalic acid; tetracycline & its derivatives; antacids; tea; bran; copper deficiency; soy protein can decrease Fe absorption by up to 92%;

• storage: 50% in red blood cells; remainder stored in blood serum, liver, spleen, bone marrow (site of red blood cell formation) and muscles; Fe is stored in mobile depots, hollow protein shells (ferritin), each molecule of which can hold up to 4,500 Fe atoms (usually less than 3,000);

• excretion: Fe is efficiently recycled; small amounts lost through urine, menstruation, sweat, & skin wear; body has no way of excreting large amounts of Fe;

• metabolism: molybdenum is involved in Fe metabolism; B-complex vitamins involved; higher requirements for Fe in growth, pregnancy, aspirin use, wound healing, & menstruation; inorganic Fe destroys Vitamin E; Fe utilization impaired in rheumatoid arthritis, cancer, candidiasis, & chronic herpes infection;

• interactions: tetracycline, penicillamine, levodopa, & cardiodopa bind iron, making it unavailable to the body; phytic & oxalic acids, & EDTA also bind iron;

• part of hemoglobin in red blood cells, which carry oxygen to all parts of body through-out their 120 day life span; Vitamins C, E, B-6, & B-12, & the amino acid glycine are necessary for red blood cell formation;

• part of myoglobin in muscles, a reservoir of oxygen for muscles that makes sustained muscular activity possible;

• Fe participates in energy-producing reactions (cytochromes of Krebs cycle) in all cells, activates energy-producing oxidizing enzymes, necessary for synthesis of carnitine which transports fats to be oxidized for energy; helps regulate blood fats;

• may boost physical performance, due to its role in oxygen transport in blood & muscle, energy production, activation of enzymes which burn (oxidize) foods to produce energy, & transport of fatty acids into the energy-producing mitochondria (fatty acids are the major energy source for muscles);

• activates Vitamin A; necessary for DNA, RNA, collagen, & antibody synthesis;

• stimulates immune function; Fe regulates rate of T-cell production (DNA synthesis); involved in proteins which generate toxic oxygen & iodine to kill bacteria;

• part of system which builds resistance to infection by yeasts, viruses, & bacteria;

• necessary in the synthesis of connective tissue (collagen & elastin);

• involved in production & regulation of several brain neurotransmitters (serotonin, dopamine, noradrenalin) which play important roles in behavior;

• improves learning & behavior; prevents learning disorders (emotional, social, & cognitive), irritability, & lack of interest in surroundings in children;

• part of the system which detoxifies drugs; part of Fe-containing enzymes: catalases, peroxidases, & cytochromes;

• measurement: milligrams;

• optimum (SONA) average similar to RDA;

• individual optimum needs to be determined for each individual case; during childbearing years, women require about 2x as much Fe as men — difficult to obtain even from carefully planned diets; vegetarians, pregnant women, athletes, the elderly, & adolescents may also require Fe supplementation; bleeding results in losses that need to be replaced;

• minimum (EC RDA) set at 14 mg/day

• less than RDA: 60% of population, according to a U.S. government survey; 95% of children between 1 & 5, & females 18 to 44 years old;

• deficiency from inadequate dietary supply (processed foods), blood loss from injury, internal bleeding, ulcers, menstruation (1 pint of blood contains 235 mg of Fe); poor absorption due to lack of Vitamin C in diet; vegan diet; drugs which make Fe unavailable (tetracycline & its derivatives); diets high in substances which bind Fe—phytic acid (grains ), & oxalic acid (rhubarb, spinach, & chocolate); diet high in phosphates; excess coffee or tea;- deficiency also associated with increased esophagus & stomach cancer (Plummer-Vinson syndrome);

• at risk: infants, rapidly growing children & adolescents, females during reproductive years, pregnant women, people with injury or internal bleeding;

• symptoms include: Fe deficiency anemia (more common in women): fatigue, muscle weakness, light-headedness, anorexia, pallor, headache, sore tongue, mouth inflammation, difficulty swallowing, concave fingernails with length-wise ridges, cold hands & feet, lowered resistance to disease, palpitation during exertion; low blood hemoglobin measurement; irritability, apathy, poor digestion, confusion; lowered exercise tolerance; paleness of inner lower eyelid; susceptibility to colds;

• differentiate between: B-6, B-12, folic acid, Cu, & zinc deficiency anemias; anemias due to lead poisoning, thyroid problems, & lack of certain enzymes;

• toxicity: iron overload from dietary intake is rare; repeated transfusions, thalassemia, or genetic predispositions are usually required;

• 15 gram dose can be fatal for adult, 3 gram (3000 mg) dose for 2-year old;

• toxic symptoms in children may begin at 20 mg/kg of body weight (keep iron supplements out of reach of children); slight excess can constipate;

• unbound Fe (ferrous) from tissue injury or genetic Fe storage disorder (hemochromatosis, siderosis) damages heart, liver, pancreas, & skin, generates destructive HO (hydroxyl) radicals, & produces arthritic symptoms; adult long-term intake of more than 75 mg/day is usually necessary;

• reversed by: lowering Fe intake; increasing Vitamin E intake; increasing bran, phytic acid, soy protein;

• usual therapeutic dose is between 10 and 100 mg/day;

• alleviates Fe deficiency anemia;

• especially important to supplement the diets of women of childbearing age, pregnant women, & breast-feeding mothers;

• supplementation also important during early & adolescent periods of rapid growth;

• important under conditions of extensive blood loss (surgery, accident, internal bleeding, blood donation);

• may improve athletic (esp. women) performance even if Fe deficiency is not apparent (sub-clinical);

• used to relieve symptoms of fatigue, which may be caused by low Fe;

• may improve behavior & learning disorders in children, adolescents, & adults;

• used to raise low hemoglobin;

General - trace mineral; bone, joint & cartilage mineral; "mother love" element?;

• adult body contains about 15 mg; highest concentration is in mitochondria;

• widely distributed throughout body;

• already present in blue green algae, one of oldest organisms on earth;

• required for the functioning of 2 (mitochondrial) enzymes: one has anti-oxidant function (superoxide dismutase); the other converts pyruvate into oxaloacetate for energy production (pyruvate carboxylase);

• history: essentiality for mammals established in 1931; report on Mn essentiality for humans in 1973;

• sources: best: tea, whole grains, rice & wheat brans, legumes, ginger, cloves, nuts, avocado; good: fruits, vegetables; poor: dairy, meat, fish, refined, processed foods; supplements: Mn salts, acid salts, amino acid chelates, multi-mineral, multimineral-vitamin formulations;

• absorption throughout length of small intestine; healthy humans absorb only about 3% of Mn in foods; rapidly removed from circulation by liver;

• improved by: dietary Vitamin C; body’s need for Mn; deficiency of iron; lecithin, choline, alcohol;

• antagonized by: high intakes of iron, calcium, zinc, phosphorus, cobalt, soy protein;

• storage: high concentrations in pancreas, liver, kidney, bone;

• excretion: mainly through bile; very little in urine; if bile is blocked, removed through pancreatic juice & intestinal walls;

• metabolism: appears to use same absorption & transfer mechanisms as iron; appears to interfere with iron absorption;

• interactions: phenothiazine tranquilizers deplete body stores of Mn;

• (animals) important for development & maintenance of healthy cartilage, ligaments, discs, joints, & bones; important for inner ear development & balance;

•  important for synthesis & metabolism of mucopolysaccharides (glucosyl transferase enzymes);

• involved in building & degrading proteins, nucleic acid, & biogenic amines;

• necessary for RNA chain initiation;

• (animals) required for synthesis of sex hormones, & for reproductive function;

• mobilizes fats from liver; in animals, Mn plays role in carbohydrate & fat metabolism;

• enhances immune function by stimulating activity of natural killer cells;

• part of mitochondrial superoxide dismutase (S.O.D.), an antioxidant enzyme;

• part of energy-producing reactions (oxidative phosphorylation); activates 2 enzymes that control entry to the citric acid (Krebs) cycle which produces energy in all cells;

• helps liver to produce glycogen, a readily available stored source of energy;

• elevated concentrations found in site of energy metabolism (mitochondria ) of all cells, especially those of liver, kidneys, & pancreas;

• involved in synthesis of fatty acids, cholesterol, DNA, RNA, & urea;

• specific calcium antagonist inside cells; Mn deficiency enhances toxicity of soft tissue calcium;

• many functions of Mn can be duplicated by Mg;

• measurement: milligrams;

• optimum (SONA) average not set; suggestions indicate above 15 mg/day;

• individual optimum needs to be determined for each individual case;

• minimum (US RDA) set at 2.5 to 5 mg/day; healthy diets contain 9 to 15 mg/day; (EC RDA) not yet established;

• less than RDA: no official figures, but estimates around 20 - 30%;

• deficiency from refined, processed foods; grains lose about 75% of Mn during refining; impaired absorption; increased requirement;

• symptoms may include: poor skeletal growth; loose ligaments & joint pains; reproductive dysfunction; nervous system disorders; lack of muscular co-ordination; transient high blood sugar levels; low energy levels (fatigue); development of defective cells in pancreas; diabetes?; heart disease?; rheumatoid arthritis?; cancer? (mitochondrial Mn superoxide dismutase virtually absent in cancer cells); impaired blood clotting (impaired glycoprotein synthesis); decreased serum cholesterol; difficult to assess, because functions overlap with magnesium;

• impaired glucose tolerance; abnormal bone & cartilage; disc degeneration; birth defects, growth retardation, reduced fertility; slow bone healing; backaches; sore knees due to cartilage damage;

• severe deficiency: convulsions, skipped heartbeats, dermatitis, loss of hair pigment, slowed growth of hair nails & beard, nausea & vomiting, decreased serum phospholipids & triglycerides, moderate weight loss;

• toxicity: not known with supplements; would require in excess of 600 mg/day; excess Mn is not absorbed; liver excretes excess Mn efficiently;- toxicity possible with industrial Mn dust contaminants; Parkinson-like symptoms from auto-oxidation of neurotransmitter (dopamine); weakness; slowed growth; anemia from blocking iron absorption; psychological & motor difficulties;

• protection by: high levels of dietary protein; l-dopa;

• usual therapeutic dose is 2 to 50 mg/day; best given on empty stomach at bedtime, to prevent Mn interference with absorption of other minerals;

• used in the treatment of ligament and joint dysfunction;

• helpful as part of a program for immune function enhancement;

• 4 mg Mn with 80 mg zinc more effective in eliminating excess copper of high copper schizophrenics than zinc used alone;

• stabilize membranes of epileptics low in Mn;

• treat tardive dyskinesia;

• improve glucose intolerance due to Mn deficiency;

• difficult to identify precise therapeutic uses, because of overlapping functions with magnesium;

• synergists: Vitamin C; N-acetyl glucosamine (N.A.G.);

General - trace mineral; detox mineral;

• adult body contains about 9 mg;

• history: essentiality for humans established in 1953;

• sources: best: lentils, liver, peas, cauliflower, brewer’s yeast, wheat germ, spinach; good: kidney, garlic, whole grains, eggs, fish, sunflower seeds; poor: refined foods, foods grown on Mo-deficient soils; supplements: Mo salts, amino acid chelates, multi-mineral, multimineral-vitamin formulations;

• absorbed readily from stomach & upper small intestine; 25 to 80% of ingested Mo is absorbed;

• antagonized by: removed from foods during refining;

• storage: mainly in liver & kidneys; adrenal glands, bones, & skin;

• excretion: through kidneys; rapidly turned over;

• metabolism: works with fluoride; high copper intake increases Mo excretion; high sulfates increase Mo excretion;

• interactions: high Mo results in high urinary losses of copper; tungsten is antagonist to Mo metabolism;

• as co-factor of an enzyme (xanthine oxidase), Mo is involved in mobilizing iron from liver storage to oxidize aldehydes;

• helps to remove nitrogen waste from the body through the formation of uric acid (purine metabolism); uric acid is a powerful anti-oxidant; Mo appears to play role in control of aging;

• detoxifies one class of food preservatives (sulfiting agents) by means of Mo-containing enzyme (sulfite oxidase); sulfites can cause nausea, diarrhea, acute asthma, coma, & death in sensitive individuals; bisulfite destroys Vitamin B-1;

• involved in fat metabolism & energy production through Mo-activated enzyme (aldehyde oxidase);

• catalyzes reactions which transfer an oxygen atom from water to various compounds; simultaneous exchange reactions: give up 2 electrons at one end of molecule + cause 2 protons to be given up at other end of molecule;

• powerful agent for reducing copper levels;

• protects against cancer of the stomach and esophagus; protects (rats) against chemical carcinogens;

• may decrease incidence of tooth decay by promoting retention of fluoride;

• increases muscle tone;

• measurement: micrograms;

• optimum (SONA) average ranges not yet established;

• individual optimum needs to be determined for each individual case;

• minimum (EC RDA) not yet established; (recommended intake between 150 & 500 µg/day);

• less than RDA: not yet known;

• deficiency of Mo from inadequate intake, genetic condition, high copper, high sulfur;

• symptoms may include: increased susceptibility to dental caries; inadequate uric acid production; impaired sexual functioning, especially in older men; maybe gout; cancer of esophagus (due to nitrosamine formation);

• intolerance to sulfur-containing amino acids, resulting in fast heartbeat, increased breathing rate, visual problems, & coma;

• (animals) elevated mortality in mother & offspring; elevated copper levels in liver & brain; defective sulfur (cysteine) metabolism?;

• toxicity: Mo is relatively non-toxic; unusually high intake required to produce symptoms;

• may cause diarrhea, depressed growth, anemia (failure of red blood cells to mature); symptoms identical to those of copper deficiency;

• very high intake (10 - 15 mg/day, which is very difficult to achieve) may alter uric acid metabolism, producing gout;

• relieve Mo deficiency;

• balance & ameliorate the toxicity of excess copper;

• may play part in preventing anemia;

• may prevent dental caries;

• may prevent esophageal cancer;

• may be helpful in male impotence in later years;

General - trace mineral; anti-oxidant mineral; "youth" element;

• Se is an anti-oxidant nutrient, like Vitamins C and E;

• adult body contains less than 15 mg of Se;

• belongs to sulfur family of elements; complexes with sulfur amino acids methionine & cysteine;

• considered poisonous for years, it is now known that Se prevents liver tissue degeneration;

• history: Se deficiencies reported by Marco Polo in 1295; shown to cause alkali disease in livestock in 1930’s; essentiality for animals established in 1957; first description of Se deficiency in animals in 1969; first reports of possible significance to human health appeared in 1979;

• sources: best: organ meats, sea foods, foods grown on Se-rich soils, garlic, onions, yeast; fair: meats, whole grains; poor: plant foods, foods grown on Se-poor soils; supplements: Se salts, amino acid chelates, multi-mineral, multimineral-vitamin; garlic, yeast;

• absorption from small intestine; efficiently (80%) absorbed;

• antagonized by: sulfur & sufates inhibit plants’ absorption of Se; refining loses 50 -75% of Se; boiling loses 45%;

• storage: distributed in all cells; elevated quantities found in liver, kidneys, & pancreas; cardiac muscle higher in Se that skeletal muscle; low in lung & brain;

• excretion: mainly through urine; traces lost in feces and breath;

• metabolism: virtually impossible to obtain enough Se from dietary sources; supplementation of organic (yeast-bound) selenium recommended; synergistic with Vitamin E;

• interactions: Se requirement is inversely proportional to level of Vitamin E; toxic Se level interferes with fluorine metabolism & may increase tooth decay; Vitamin C taken at same time as inorganic Se salt ( sodium selenite) may render this Se non-absorbable; organic forms of Se remain active in the presence of Vitamin C;

• important in anti-oxidant function — present in glutathione peroxidase, a 3-amino acid peptide which prevents damage to cells by neutralizing hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) & hydroperoxides of fatty acids in membranes;

• Se is a free radical scavenger; works in association withVitamin E; helps maintain cell membrane integrity by protecting membrane lipids from oxidative destruction;

• Se needed for function of liver’s detoxification (cytochrome P-450) system; protects liver from toxin & free radical damage, & maintains normal liver function;

• Se plays its protective function in nucleic acid metabolism; protects against cancer;

• protects heart and liver from free radical damage; helps control lipid peroxidation;

• protects against lack of oxygen, improving function of mitochondria by preventing free radical damage;

• helps make prostaglandins which lower blood pressure, make platelets less sticky, & help remove water & sodium from body through kidneys; prevents congestive heart failure due to Se deficiency (Keshan disease); higher tissue Se correlates with lower incidence of all cardiovascular disease conditions;

• involved in the production of anti-inflammatory prostaglandins; helpful in arthritis & inflammation of tissues;

• protects against heavy metal toxicity & harmful effects of lead, mercury, cadmium, silver, & arsenic;

• Se plus Vitamin E can improve immune system protection by 20 to 30 times; together, Se + E work better than either one alone (synergistic); Se may inhibit production of immuno-suppressive prostaglandins; Se may protect immune cells (macrophages) against the free radicals they generate to kill bacteria;

• active in maintenance of skin elasticity and hair (keratin protein); reduces chances of skin cancer;

• required in metabolism of pancreas, liver, & immune system;

• important in reproductive processes; sperm is high in Se; males may require more Se than females;

• Se inhibits all of the major mechanisms that underlie aging;

• extends life span in animals;

• measurement: micrograms;

• optimum (SONA) average ranges have not yet been determined; 400 to 1000 µg/day confer optimum protection;

• individual optimum needs to be determined for each individual case;

• minimum (US RDA) set at 70 µg/day for men, & 55 µg/day for women; suggested intake varies between 50 & 200 µg/day; (EC RDA) not yet established;

• less than RDA: no official figures, but estimates go up to 60% of population;

• deficiency from soil deficiency, which is wide-spread in North America, especially in areas of heavy glaciation during last Ice Age; food deficiency follows soil deficiency;

• symptoms include: signs of premature aging; cataract formation; anemia; infertility; nutritional muscular dystrophy; strong correlation of low Se with cancer & cardiovascular incidence; Keshan disease — heart muscle wasting; Kashin-Beck disease affects cartilage in joints; muscular discomfort; lipid accumulation in nerve cells, mental retardation, nerve disorders, diminished vision, premature death;

• (animals) hair loss, growth retardation, reproductive failure; pancreatic atrophy, myopathy, nephrosis, liver degeneration;

• toxicity: deterioration & loss of fingernails at 1000 µg/day inorganic, & 2000 to 3000 µg/day organic Se; maximum recommended dose has been set at 500 µg/day;

• reverses Se deficiency, which is especially common in vegetarians, those eating foods grown on Se-deficient soils; those eating highly refined & processed diets (teenagers, the elderly, the poor, & poorly educated); pregnant & nursing mothers; smokers; those exposed to heavy metals and toxins that create free radicals;

• at 200 - 300 µg/day, helps to reduce cancer risk, according to research by Schrauzer (U. of California) & Tolonen (Finland); appears to protect against breast, colon, ovary, pancreas, prostate, lung, & bladder cancers;

• protects against the development of high blood pressure, stroke, heart attack, & hypertensive kidney damage;

• at 100 - 200 mcg/day, Se has helpful anti-inflammatory effects on rheumatoid arthritis;

• used to increase resistance to disease by increasing production of detoxifying antibodies;

• used to improve cystic fibrosis &, with Vitamin E, muscular dystrophy;

• used to protect against damage due to radiation;

• prevents chromosome breakage in tissue culture;

• used with protein to treat protein deficiency disease (kwashiorkor);

• synergists: sulfur-containing proteins; Vitamins A, C, & E; balanced diet & supplements;

General - trace mineral;

• widely distributed in the body in low concentrations; especially concentrated in fats and oils;

• adult body contains between 17 and 43 mg;

• history: presence of V in animal tissues discovered in 1912; complete ignorance of its functions in 1940’s; proof of essentiality in mammals still lacking in 1963; essentiality of Vn for humans "established" in 1971; more recently, suggestion that role of Vn is pharmacological, not necessarily essential;

• sources: best: parsley, lobster, fish, black pepper, olives, oils, gelatin; fair: radishes, dill, lettuce, strawberries; poor: refined & processed foods; supplements: salts, amino acid chelates, multi-mineral, multimineral-vitamin;

• absorption from intestine; appears to be poorly absorbed (1%),except under special conditions;

• improved by: binding to iron-containing proteins;

• storage: liver & bones; widely distributed throughout the body; not known to be concentrated in any specific tissue; may be stored in Fe-storage molecules ferritin & transferrin;

• excretion: mainly through kidneys; 60% of absorbed Vn is lost within 24 hours;

• metabolism: 10 µg/day of Vn lost in urine; institutional diets contain 12 to 30 µg/day;

• interactions: appear to be many, but poorly understood; tobacco decreases uptake of Vn; drugs used to treat manic-depressive illness lower Vn levels;

• in animals, Vn plays essential roles in growth, iron & lipid metabolism, reproduction, & bone development; may replace phosphorus in tooth enamel, retarding tooth decay;

• may be involved in oxidation-reduction reactions;

• may regulate activity of the Na-K pump, which pumps K into cells & Na out of cells to maintain electrical charge across membranes & makes nerve conduction & muscle contraction possible;

• may regulate activity of certain membrane enzymes (ATPases);

• may regulate activity of enzymes important in phosphate metabolism;

• Vn can replace zinc, copper, &iron in functions of certain enzymes;

• might affect glucose metabolism by mimicking action of insulin; Vn stimulates oxidation of glucose to energy in fat cells; stimulates glycogen formation in liver & diaphragm; appears to alter membrane function for ion transport; inhibits enzyme (G-6-P) that initiates glucose metabolism;

• improves glucose tolerance (guinea pigs); prevents high blood sugar in low insulin diabetic rats, & prevents deterioration of heart function;

• may inhibit cholesterol synthesis in humans & animals, by blocking formation of squalene in microsomes;

• appears to have function in lipid metabolism;

• shown to accelerate bone repair, & deposit in areas of rapid tooth mineralization;

• measurement: microgram;

• optimum (SONA) averages not known; estimated requirement: 100 to 300 µg/day;

• individual optimum needs to be determined for each individual case;

• minimum (EC RDA) not yet established; urinary loss of 10 µg/day must be replaced;

• less than RDA: no official figures;

• deficiency of Vn is unlikely on normal dietary practices; not yet been induced in animals;

• symptoms might include: elevated cholesterol & triglyceride levels; studies have yielded inconsistent results including: adverse effects on survival of new-born; growth, physical appearance, blood picture, serum cholesterol, & liver lipids & phospholipids; may be involved in kidney & cardiovascular diseases;

• impaired reproduction in 4th generation; retarded bone & abnormal tooth formation;

• inconsistencies appear to be related to inconsistent diets used, indicating widespread interactions between Vn & other dietary components;

• toxicity: none observed for Vn; excessive Vn may be a factor in bipolar (manic-depressive) illness, & is lowered by large doses of Vitamin C;

• reversed by: EDTA, Vitamin C;

• 100 to 125 mg/day may inhibit cholesterol synthesis by counteracting effect of Mn;

• as part of a complete program of diet & supplementation for cholesterol & triglyceride normalization;

• may be useful in treating diabetes, cancer (along with selenium), atherosclerosis;

General - trace mineral; immune stimulator mineral;

• adult body contains about 2 or 3 grams of Zn;

• dietary Zn - copper ratios need to be carefully balanced;

• involved in many physiological processes;

• history: essentiality for rats established in 1934; in swine in 1955; Zn deficiency identified in humans in 1961; RDA set in 1974;

• sources: best: oysters, herring, clams; good: pumpkin seeds, cheddar cheese, liver, meat; fair: wheat germ, whole grains, eggs, nuts, chicken, peas, carrots; poor: refined, processed foods; supplements: Zn salts, acid salts, amino acid chelates, multi-mineral, multimineral-vitamin;

• absorption from entire small intestine, duodenum, jejunum, & ileum; taken to liver by portal vein, attached to albumin;

• improved by: histidine, with which Zn complexes for absorption; glutathione; deficiency enhances uptake; human breast milk;

• antagonized by: Ca & Fe; Cu competes with Zn for absorption; phytic acid in diets high in cereal grains may bind Zn & interfere with absorption; oxalate, coffee & tea inhibit absorption; tetracycline interferes with absorption;

• storage: relatively high Zn concentrations found throughout the body; highest concentration found in eye and ear; about 20% of the body’s Zn is found in the skin; elevated concentrations of Zn in kidneys, liver; in males, high Zn concentrations in prostate gland & sperm;

• excretion: largest amount through intestine & feces, but kidney, skin & sweat, & semen also lose appreciable amounts of Zn; rapid turnover of Zn in cancer, healing of burns, & growth spurts of infancy & adolescence;

• metabolism: large amounts of Zn lost in sweat during exercise & by anxiety;

• interactions: thiazide diuretics, EDTA, penicillamine, & cortisone increase Zn excretion; high levels of Zn may interfere with selenium absorption; high Zn may decrease Cu & Fe in body;

• co-factor in over 80 Zn-containing metallo-enzyme reactions in all cells, tissues, & organs; also has non-enzymatic roles;

• necessary for Vitamin A metabolism & night vision;

• necessary for insulin’s ability to function;

• plays important role in stabilizing membranes;

• involved in growth, cell division, & synthesis of nucleic acids & protein; required for manufacture of polysomes, on which proteins are synthesized; necessary for synthesis of intracellular microtubules, important for movement of phagocytic immune cells;

• necessary for synthesis of nucleic acids DNA & RNA (DNA & RNA polymerases); part of enzyme which breaks down RNA (RNAase);

• co-factor in alpha-macroglobulin, an immune system protein; required for thymus gland function; activates serum thymic factors; Zn also has direct anti-viral activity;

• necessary for essential fatty acid metabolism in the production of hormone-like prostaglandins, which regulate platelet stickiness, arterial muscle tone (blood pressure), tissue inflammation, sodium and water balance, & immune function;

• necessary for the senses of taste & smell, the biochemistry of vision, & normal function of nerves;

• necessary for brain development, & for adult brain function; Zn-deficient brain cells shrink;

• necessary for skin, hair, and fingernail protein (keratin & chitin) metabolism;

• involved in enzymes which synthesize & degrade collagen;

• necessary for development, maturation, & maintenance of primary & secondary male sex organs, as well as sperm formation;

• involved in all reproductive processes in women, including ovulation, birthing, & lactation;

• necessary for bone and joint metabolism;

• essential for wound healing;

• part of protein-digesting enzymes in pancreatic juice;

• helps remove CO2 from tissues, & eliminate CO2 through lungs; helps maintain acid-base balance;

• necessary for removing ammonia (NH3) from body;

• required for production of HCl in stomach, essential for protein digestion;

• required for maintenance of the cardiovascular system;

• necessary for carbohydrate metabolism & alcohol detoxification in liver;

• measurement: milligrams; inability to taste a solution of Zn SO4 indicates Zn deficiency;

• optimum (SONA) average ranges from 12 to 20 mg/day;

• individual optimum needs to be determined for each individual case; requirement influenced by type of diet, age, climate, activity level (sweating loses large amounts), trauma, & illness;

• minimum (EC RDA) set at 15 mg/ day;

• less than RDA: no official figures; estimates suggest 60% of population;

• deficiency from soil deficiencies of Zn, widespread in North America; dietary intake of Zn reflects soil Zn, & is marginal in many people; imbalance in Zn/copper ratio; poor dietary practices; use of refined & processed foods from which Zn has been removed; slimming diets; excessive alcohol use; vegetarianism; exposure to toxic metals such as cadmium & inorganic copper from water pipes; acute & chronic stress; injury;

• decreased intake, decreased absorption, decreased utilization, increased loss, & increased requirement;

• symptoms include: joint pain; stretch marks on skin of hips, thighs, abdomen, breasts, & shoulder girdle; infertility; impaired growth, sexual development, & sexual function; loss of taste (hypogeusia) & appetite (anorexia); slowed wound healing; birth defects; atherosclerotic plaque formation; hypercholesterolemia; acne & other skin disorders; poor fingernail formation & white spots on fingernails; proneness to infections; behavioral problems including hyperactivity, schizophrenia, & perceptual dysfunction; genetic Zn deficiency (inability to absorb) results in acrodermatitis enteropathica: whole body rash, infections, diarrhea, retardation; retarded growth; can be fatal if untreated; cured by high doses of Zn;

• impaired DNA synthesis; impaired RNA synthesis; impaired polysome production; impaired protein synthesis, cell replication, night vision, and retinal function; impaired phagocytic function, cellular immunity, humoral immunity, & immune cell intercommunication;

• decreased albumin synthesis; impaired glucose metabolism; decreased insulin response; disordered prostaglandin activity; decreased testosterone; lowered white cell, T-lymphocyte, & serum thymic factor activity; lowered resistance to infection & auto-immune disease; abnormal retinal pigments; decreased collagen synthesis; decreased platelet aggregation;

• toxicity: fever, nausea, vomiting from acute doses of 2,000 mg;

• long-term intake of more than 180 mg/day impairs immune function, & may result in copper deficiency, anemia, & low
• excess Zn may result in gastrointestinal irritation, & adverse changes in HDL/LDL ratios;

• Zn is best known for its effectiveness in treating enlarged & inflamed prostate glands, common in older men;

• Zn is useful for treating pubertal acne & other skin conditions due to increased Zn requirement for the production of sex hormones;

• Zn can speed wound healing, surgical trauma, & burns (along with Vitamins C & E);

• helps prevent development of stretch marks on breast and abdominal skin of pregnant & breast-feeding women; supports normal development of the unborn child;

• used to treat anorexia nervosa, part of which may involve loss of taste & smell, (foods taste like sawdust);

• useful for supplementing the diets of vegans, which tend to both be Zn-deficient & high in phytates which may bind Zn;

• helpful in treatment of macular degeneration, which results in blindness;

• helps prevent & heal conditions of recurrent infections & colds;

• can help prevent alcohol-induced cirrhosis of the liver;

• part of nutritional program used to prevent & treat cardiovascular disease;

• part of nutritional treatment of Hodgkin’s disease, leukemia, & cancer;

• helpful in treatment of diabetes, pancreatic insufficiency of insulin production;

• useful in reducing the swelling & pain of arthritis, especially rheumatoid;

• useful to prevent absorption and help excretion of heavy metals lead, mercury, & cadmium; useful in cadmium-caused male infertility;

• high Zn levels may be useful in removing iron in iron toxicity;

• part of balanced program of nutrition for health & life extension;

• synergists: Vitamins C & E for healing; Vitamin A, C, & E & essential fatty acids for acne & skin conditions; complete & balanced nutritional program for all conditions;

• • essential mineral; deficiency unlikely; excess can be a danger;

• • history: essentiality for humans established in 1980;

• • apparently required for normal growth;

• • role is not fully understood, but appears to be related to iron metabolism;

• • deficiency of As is virtually impossible;

• • toxicity: can easily occur from intakes slightly greater than normal;

General - trace element; tooth decay-preventing mineral;

• essentiality not yet established, although F is known to react in biological systems;

• part of sentiment against fluoridation stems from confusion between toxic action of F- containing organic molecules used as pesticides, & much less toxic F salts used in water to promote strong bones & teeth & to prevent tooth decay;

• history: first evidence of F role in tooth development & later decay in 1929; more extensive survey info in 1939; F into water supply in 1945 in Michigan; sodium fluoride introduced to treat osteoporosis with vertebral fractures in 1961; almost certain essentiality for humans indicated in 1972;

• sources: bone; fluoridated water, food cooked in fluoridated water; mackerel, salmon; dental preparations; not supplemented;

• absorption from stomach & intestine; 90% absorbed;

• antagonized by: aluminum salts, calcium;

• storage: in bone & tooth structure; circulates throughout body;

• excretion: through urine

• metabolism: half of absorbed F becomes part of bone & tooth structure;

• controls tooth decay in low concentrations (1 ppm = 60% reduction); high (2.5 ppm) concentration produces mottled, discolored teeth;

• growth & reproduction may require F; not yet established with certainty;

• appears to stabilize skeleton against the loss of Ca;

• replaces crystals of hydroxyapatite (bone substance) with fluoroapatite, which is harder & less soluble to acids & acid-producing bacteria;

• those drinking fluoridated water may have less soft tissue and arterial calcification;

• F is the only non-hormonal substance that stimulates new bone formation;

• people living in high F areas have less osteoporosis, greater bone density, & less collapsed vertebrae;

• measurement: milligrams;

• optimum (SONA) not yet known; average intake ranges around 1 to 2 mg/day;

• individual optimum not studied; not used as part of nutritional supplement program;

• minimum (EC RDA) for water set at about 1 part per million;

• deficiency from lack in food supply or water;

• symptoms include: soft teeth easily dissolved by acid, developing cavities;

• toxicity: high doses produce brown mottled teeth, calcium retention, & interference with collagen formation; acute toxicity requires 2,000 to 10,000 mg; chronic toxicity from 20 -80 mg/day; high concentrations may increase cancer incidence; high doses may lead to gum disease; organic fluorides, part of certain pesticides to kill insects, mice & rats, are toxic;

• inorganic fluoride salts, added to water supply, are much less toxic;

• antidote for toxicity: Ca;

• decrease incidence of dental decay by 50 -60%;

• prevent bone loss after menopause, on space flights, & while immobilized;

• high levels may protect against bone loss from osteoporosis, may protect jaw bone against loss of teeth & gum disease;

• may be useful to lower incidence of calcified aorta, heart valves, tendons, soft tissues, & arteries;

• synergists: calcium;

General - trace mineral;

• found in very low quantities in all tissues and fluids;

• women have about 4x more Ni in their bodies than men; reason unknown;

• history: presence of Ni in plant & animal tissues reported in 1925; essentiality for humans suggested in 1936; essentiality for humans confirmed in 1971;

• sources: best: chocolate, nuts, dried beans & peas, & grains; good: widely distributed in fruits, vegetables; not usually supplemented;

• absorption from upper intestine; absorption pathway shared with iron; inefficient process, only 10% of Ni being absorbed;

• improved by: low iron;

• antagonized by: high iron;

• storage: in all tissues and organs, without being more concentrated in any particular part of body;

• excretion: urine (complexed with histidine & aspartic acid) & bile;

• metabolism: Ni enhances iron utilization;

• interactions: with both iron & copper; several other essential nutrients also interact with Ni;

• Ni functions have not been clearly elucidated; may involve redox functions & Ni-containing metallo-enzymes;

• appear to include lipid metabolism; cell membrane integrity;

• firmly associated with DNA & RNA; role in DNA & RNA (nucleic acid) synthesis;

• enhances iron use;

• measurement: micrograms;

• optimum (SONA) average ranges not yet known; suggested intake may be around 50 to 75 µg/day; human diets contain between 5 & 900 µg/day;

• individual optimum needs to be determined for each individual case;

• minimum (EC RDA) not yet established;

• deficiency of Ni has not been reported in humans, and is unlikely;

• symptoms include: liver & kidney ailments?; depressed growth & blood formation; alterations in liver iron, copper, & zinc levels;

• toxicity: not likely; excellent homeostatic regulation; toxic form of Ni combined with carbon monoxide (nickel carbonyl) found in tobacco smoke contributes to development of lung cancer;

• not yet known;

General - trace element;

• adult body contains about 20 mg;

• Si is sister element of carbon, but atoms are bigger & less electronegative; forms stronger bonds than carbon; structural stability?;

• history: found in ashes of animals in 1848; found in tendons, aponeuroses, & eye tissues in 1901; anti-atheroma function suggested in 1911; essentiality for humans established in 1972;

• sources: best: rice polishings, whole grains, brans, horsetail herb, root vegetables, alfalfa; good: skin; poor: most other foods, refined foods (98% of Si is removed); supplements: bamboo gum, horsetail herb, oat straw tea, alginic acid, pectin, kelp, comfrey, nettles;

• absorption from intestinal tract; absorption rate depends on kind of Si compound;

• antagonized by: molybdenum, magnesium, fluoride, high fiber;

• storage: high concentrations of Si in lymph nodes as clusters & grains of quartz; in skin, aorta, tendons, epithelial & connective tissue; in active growth areas of bones; in skin & fingernails;

• excretion: through urine;

• metabolism: Si excretion affected by hormones; evidence that parathyroid hormone regulates blood Si levels;

• functions as a cross-linking agent, providing strength and resilience to collagen & elastin connective tissues;

• likely essential for bone & cartilage collagen synthesis;

• present as silanolate, ether or ester-like silicic acid derivative, in mucopolysaccharides, the structural components of connective tissues; may play role in structural organization of mucopolysaccharides;

• chondroitin sulphate contains high level of silicon;

• Si appears essential for bone calcification;

• 14x as much silicon in clean arteries than in arteries with atherosclerosis;

• fibers which benefit heart & arteries all contain high quantities of Si;

• stimulates growth;

• measurement: milligrams;

• optimum (SONA) average ranges not yet set; suggested intake may be 21 to 46 mg/day;

• individual optimum needs to be determined for each individual case;

• minimum (EC RDA) not yet established

• less than RDA: no official figures; estimated around 30% of population; those eating refined diets & diets low in whole grains & root vegetables;

• deficiency from refined foods diets;

• symptoms of Si deficiency have not been definitely identified for humans, but may include atherosclerosis, osteoarthritis, high blood pressure, and aging;

• may include tissue weakness, aging, joint & cartilage weakness, connective tissue weakness; bone weakness;

• toxicity: oral Si is non-toxic;

• may be useful to prevent atherosclerosis, arthritis, aging of connective tissues & skin;

• may be useful in strengthening musculo-skeletal system, preventing injuries in athletes & others;

• may be useful in treatment of disorders involving connective tissues, bones, & skin;

• may be helpful in growing healthy hair & nails;

• may be useful in reducing blood fats & cholesterol; Si may form insoluble complexes with bile in intestine, ensuring its removal from body;

• may help protect against and heal gastric ulcers and arthritis (connective tissue healing);

• may help in recalcifying decalcified bones, & decalcify soft tissue deposits of calcium;

• may help bones heal, & help prevent osteoporosis;

• synergists: N-acetyl glucosamine, manganese, Vitamin C, calcium;

General - trace element;

• history: essentiality for humans almost certain; essentiality to rat established in 1970;

• storage: present in many tissues, not especially concentrated in any one tissue;

• interactions: copper & iron protect against Sn deficiency;

• may take part in oxidation-reduction reactions;

• may form co-ordination complexes, suggesting possible enzyme co-factor role;

• (animals) necessary for growth & hemoglobin synthesis; also liver function;

• measurement: milligrams;

• optimum (SONA) average ranges not yet set; intake between 2 & 20 mg/day;

• individual optimum needs to be determined for each individual case;

• minimum (EC RDA) not yet established; estimated to be around 4 mg/day;

• less than RDA: no official figures;

• deficiency from lack of Sn in diet?;

• symptoms of Sn deficiency have not been identified for humans;

• toxicity: none known;

• not yet known;

Nutritional fats and oils tell a two-sided story in human health. The negative side of fats and oils (lipids), which has received most of the column inches that the press has devoted to lipids, consists of those — including hard, refined, refined tropical, and chemically altered (hydrogenated) — which lower our energy levels, clog our arteries, and kill us from within through conditions that involve the degeneration of our cells, tissues and organs. These degenerative conditions include cardiovascular disease, cancer, and diabetes. 68% of the population dies from one of these three killers, and fats play a major role in all three. That much the popular press has fairly told and warned us about.

Fats also play a major part in conditions such as PMS, arthritis, fatty degeneration of inner organs, skin conditions, disorders of the digestive system, and other degenerative disorders.

There is another side to the fats and oils story. Contrary to what we’ve been told, not all fats are poison, and not all fats should be avoided. In fact, certain food components that are present only in lipids are absolutely essential to our health. If our foods do not supply these essential lipid substances in the required quantities, deficiency symptoms develop, just as they do when the human body obtains too little of any essential vitamin or mineral.

Our preoccupation with the so-called "killer fats" has blinded many people to the vital importance of certain oils to health. We must supply our bodies with certain lipid substances — the "healer fats" — either through foods or through supplements. Components of certain oils, these "healer fats" are more properly known as essential fatty acids.

Essential Fatty Acids

Two fatty acids are essential for human health. They must be provided by foods or by supplements, because the human body cannot make them from other substances. They are an absolute requirement for life and for health. These two essential fatty acids are named linoleic acid (LA; or Omega 6), and alpha-linolenic acid (ALA; or Omega 3).

Our consumption of LA, which is found in most common seeds and oils (safflower, corn, sunflower, soy, and sesame are rich sources), has doubled in the last 150 years. Our consumption of ALA, which is rare in oils (flax is richest; soy, pumpkin, and canola contain a little; most other oils contain negligible amounts), has decreased to one sixth of its level of consumption 150 years ago.

Excess dietary LA enhances tumor formation, especially if Vitamin E has been removed from an oil containing it during refining and processing. ALA and its relatives, on the other hand, inhibits tumor formation. The shift in our consumption toward more LA and less ALA is a shift toward greater incidence of tumors, which is corroborated by our increasing incidence of cancers over the last 150 years.

From LA and ALA, the cells of most healthy individuals make several derivatives with important functions. Essential fatty acids and these derivatives are important components of cell membranes and intra-cellular membranes.

Two derivatives from LA: dihomogamma-linolenic acid (DGLA) and arachidonic acid (AA), and one derivative from ALA: eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) are especially key, in that they serve as precursors to prostaglandins, a group of hormone-like substances whose biological effects touch virtually every aspect of human physiology. Knowledge of the prostaglandins and their metabolism is one of the fastest developing and most exciting areas in biomedical research.

Three series of prostaglandins have been identified. Each series is made from one of the three key essential fatty acid derivatives (DGLA, AA, and EPA, respectively), and each series contains about a dozen members. The diverse effects of the prostaglandins on the metabolic functions in all cells, tissues, and organs are being intensively studied.

Dietary LA is a precursor for gamma-linolenic acid (GLA), which in turn is converted into dihomogamma-linolenic acid (DGLA), the parent substance from which the body makes Series One prostaglandins. DGLA can also be converted into arachidonic acid (AA), the parent of Series Two prostaglandins.

Series One prostaglandins have generally beneficial effects on the body. Series Two prostaglandins, useful in the jungle existence of "fight or flight", are generally detrimental to people living "civilized" life styles high in stress and low in physical activity.

Dietary ALA is the precursor for eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), the parent of the Series Three prostaglandins. These have generally beneficial effects on the body. In addition, EPA blocks the conversion of AA into the detrimental Series Two prostaglandins. EPA is further converted into docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), which is vital for brain development and, in adults, the functions of brain, nerves, vision, hearing, adrenal (stress) glands, and sperm formation.

Supplements of Essential Fatty Acid Derivatives

The conversion of dietary LA to the prostaglandin precursor GLA can be impeded or blocked by many dietary factors,including:

• diets high in margarines, shortening, shortening oil, and partially hydrogenated, processed, & heated vegetable oils, which contain altered fatty acids known as trans-fatty acids;

• moderate to high alcohol consumption;

• diets high in saturated fats;

• diets high in cholesterol;

• diets high in sugar;

• dietary deficiencies of biotin, Vitamin B-6 (pyridoxine), C, Zn, &/or Mg;

• excess ALA (linseed, black currant seed oils);

• diabetes;

• radiation;

• carcinogenic chemicals;

• aging;

• inherited (genetic) inability to convert.

When the conversion of LA to GLA is blocked due to genetic factors or poor dietary practices, a food source such as Evening Primrose Oil or Borage Oil provides the LA derivative GLA, which the body can convert into DGLA and then into beneficial Series One Prostaglandins. DGLA is not available in foods other than mother’s milk, and so cannot be easily supplemented through the diet.

If the conversion of LA to GLA is blocked, the conversion of ALA to its derivatives is also blocked, since the same enzymes convert both essential fatty acids into their derivatives. For this reason, supplements which contain derivatives of both essential fatty acids bring better results than supplements containing derivatives of only one or the other. Fish Oils provide the ALA derivative EPA, which the body can convert into beneficial Series Three Prostaglandins.

Combinations of evening primrose and fish oil (Enerex's Omega 3-6) improve many degenerative conditions, indicating widespread requirement for essential fatty acid derivatives to bypass blocks.

Note: Some manufacturers of nutritional supplements market essential fatty acids supplements as containing omega 3, 6 and 9 fatty acids. Omega 9 is oleic acid and is non-essential in humans. Virtually all vegetable oils contain oleic acid in varying degrees and there is no known deficiency in humans. In fact, it has been shown that excessive oleic acid along with increased copper to zinc ratio can inhibit linoleic acid and gamma linolenic acids metabolism with predictable long-term clinical consequences⁽¹⁾. It is misleading and unethical to market essential fatty acid supplements that draw attention to Omega 9 (oleic acid) has having nutritional significance, and by inference, superior to those formulas that do not show the oleic acid content. 

(1) Holman R.T. Essential Fatty Acids and Prostaglandins. Progress in Lipid Research, Volume 20, 1981, pp 601-603. Pergamon Press

In order for the complex activities of essential fatty acids (EFAs), EFA derivatives, and prostaglandins (PGs) to take place, the essential fatty acids LA and ALA must be present in the diet, as well as the EFA derivatives GLA and EPA. Given an adequate supply of these, the body knows how to use them. Good Health results from this simple nutritional intervention.

Prostaglandins have many key functions in our bodies related to health. These include platelet stickiness, blood pressure, kidney function (sodium and water balance), inflammatory response, and immune function.

Series One Prostaglandins have beneficial effects on these functions. They make platelets less sticky, lower blood pressure by relaxing smooth muscles in the walls of arteries, increase loss of sodium and waters, decrease inflammation, & enhance immunity.

Series Two Prostaglandins in excess have detrimental effects on the five functions listed above. They tend to make platelets more sticky, increase blood pressure by contracting the muscles in the walls of our arteries, decrease the loss of sodium and water by the kidneys, increase inflammation response, and lower immune function.

Series Three Prostaglandins have beneficial effects. They block the detrimental effects of the Series Two Prostaglandins, preventing these "bad guys" from being made in the body. As a result of their interference with Series Two Prostaglandin production, the platelets are less sticky, blood pressure is lower because the muscles in the walls of our arteries remain relaxed, loss of sodium and water by the kidneys takes place more effectively, inflammation response is decreased, and immune function is efficient.

Series Two Prostaglandins are used in "fight or flight" (stress) situations, — the fight against danger, or the flight from it. In modern life styles which are high in stress but low in physical activity, continuous production of Series Two Prostaglandins results in sticky platelets, high blood pressure, increased water and sodium retention, increased inflammation, and decreased immune system capabilities.

The common and serious degenerative conditions of the 20th Century are closely related to essential fatty acids, essential fatty acid derivatives, and prostaglandins.

Consumption of prostaglandins is useless, because they are destroyed during digestion. Consumption of supplements of essential fatty acids or their derivatives can bring dramatic improvements in health, through their conversion into prostaglandins in the body.

1. LINOLEIC ACID (LA)

General - essential fatty acid; Omega 6;

• excess of LA more likely in Western populations than deficiency;

• precursor for several derivatives including gamma-linolenic acid (GLA), dihomogamma-linolenic acid (DGLA parent of Series 1 Prostaglandins), and arachidonic acid (AA, parent of Series 2 Prostaglandins);

• history: LA discovered to be essential for rats in 1929; human essentiality established in 1954; conversion of arachidonic acid to prostaglandins recognized in 1965; prostaglandin metabolism identified in 1970’s;

• sources: best: sunflower and sesame seeds; good: fresh safflower, sunflower, sesame oils; poor quality: refined oils; low quantity: processed foods; supplements: fresh encapsulated oils (protected from oxidation);

• absorption from intestine; ;

• improved by: sufficient bile;

• antagonized by: lack of bile;

• stability: destroyed by light (generates free radicals), oxygen (peroxides = rancidity), & heat (increases rate of spoilage by light & oxygen; above 160*C, twisted trans- fatty acids begin to form); frying & deep-frying is very destructive;

• storage: in fat (adipose) cells; in cell membranes; in membranes surrounding intracellular organelles;

• excretion: not excreted; excess is "burned" to generate energy;

• metabolism: converted into derivatives and prostaglandins;

• required for cell membrane & intracellular organelle membrane integrity;

• necessary for production of Series 1 (beneficial) Prostaglandins;

• necessary for production of Series 2 (stress-related, detrimental)Prostaglandins;

• involved in regulatory activities in all cells, tissues, & organs;

• measurement: milligrams; grams;

• optimum (SONA) average ranges not set; estimated 3 - 6% of calories (10 - 20 grams/day);

• individual optimum needs to be determined for each individual case;

• minimum (EC RDA) not yet established; estimated at 1 - 2% of calories (3 - 6 grams/day);

• less than RDA: not common; excess far more likely;

• deficiency of LA from use of fat-free &Pritikin-type diets;

• symptoms include: skin disorders, loss of hair, liver degeneration & fatty deposits in liver, behavioral disturbances, kidney degeneration, glandular atrophy, proneness to infection, poor wound healing, sterility & miscarriage, arthritis, heart & artery disease, growth retardation;

• toxicity: excess LA enhances tumor formation;

• reversed by: Vitamin E;

• alleviate symptoms of LA deficiency;

• provide material for production of LA derivatives in the body of healthy people;

• provide starting material for Series 1 & Series 2 Prostaglandin production;

2. ALPHA-LINOLENIC ACID (ALA)

General - essential fatty acid; Omega 3;

• deficiency widespread in Western populations;

• precursor of several derivatives, including eicosapentaenoic acid {EPA, parent of Series 3 (beneficial) Prostaglandins, which keep Series 2 (detrimental) Prostaglandins from being produced};

• often confused with gamma-linolenic acid (GLA), which is derived from the other essential fatty acid (LA);

• history: essentiality still subject of controversy, because deficiency symptoms not as easily identifiable as those for LA; human deficiency first identified in 1951; used in alternative (nutritional) cancer treatment in 1954; shown to decrease human platelet stickiness in 1964; shown to inhibit tumor formation (animals) in 1981;

• sources: best: flax & chia seed; candle nut; good: fresh flax oil; fresh green vegetables; poor: old oils, oils made without protection from light, oxygen, & heat; refined oils; supplements: fresh encapsulated oils (protected from oxidation);

• absorption from intestine; also absorbed through skin;

• improved by: sufficient bile;

• antagonized by: lack of bile;

• stability: destroyed by light (generates free radicals), oxygen (peroxides = rancidity), & heat (increases rate of spoilage by light & oxygen; above 160*C, twisted trans- fatty acids begin to form); frying & deep-frying is very destructive;

• storage: in fat (adipose) cells; in cell membranes; in membranes surrounding intracellular organelles;

• excretion: not excreted; excess is "burned" to generate energy;

• metabolism: converted into derivatives and prostaglandins;

• caution: diabetics need to monitor insulin levels closely;

• required for cell membrane & intracellular organelle membrane integrity;

• necessary for production of Series 3 (beneficial) Prostaglandins, which regulate platelet stickiness, blood pressure, inflammation response, sodium & water excretion through kidneys, & immune function;

• necessary to limit production of Series 2 (stress-related, detrimental) Prostaglandins;

• involved in regulatory activities in all cells, tissues, & organs;

• measurement: milligrams; grams

• optimum (SONA) average ranges not set; estimated optimum: 1 - 2% of calories (3 - 6 grams/day);

• individual optimum needs to be determined for each individual case; much higher quantities (up to 70 grams/day) may help in treatment of degenerative conditions;

• minimum (EC RDA) not yet established; estimated at 0.54% of calories (1 - 2 grams/day);

• less than RDA: no official figures; estimated over 95% of population;

• deficiency of ALA from lack in diet — refined foods, choice of Omega 3-poor foods; increased requirement;

• symptoms include: visual disturbances, motor incoordination, tingling sensations in arms & legs (multiple sclerosis-like), failure of growth; dry skin, lack of energy & stamina, increased blood triglycerides, proneness to tumors, increased platelet stickiness; excess Series 2 Prostaglandins in tissues;

• toxicity: excess energy (sleeplessness); nausea (from weak liver);

• reversed by: lowering intake;

• therapeutic dose: 15 to 35 grams/day or even more;

• alleviates symptoms of ALA deficiency;

• increases energy level & stamina; increases metabolic rate; shortens time necessary for fatigued muscles to recover from exercise; speeds wound healing; may improve visual function, color perception, & mental acuity in older people; may induce feeling of calmness; may improve behavior of delinquents resistant to counseling;

• softens dry skin; makes hair & nails strong; enhances beauty of show animals;

• decrease platelet stickiness; lower blood triglycerides; lower high cholesterol in some;

• lowers amount of insulin required by diabetics (close monitoring required);

• may be helpful in allergies, asthma; may improve liver function;

• decrease water retention (edema); decrease inflammation & arthritis pain;

• enhances immune function; helps fight strep and malarial infections;

• reverses & inhibit tumor formation; transformed human cancer cells in tissue culture are killed by ALA;

General - essential fatty acid derivative; Omega 6;

• rarely found in oils; best studied source is evening primrose oil;

• history: identified in 1949 in oil of evening primrose; studies of effects of GLA on health began in 1959; first GLA-containing evening primrose oil marketed in 1972;

• sources: best: evening primrose oil; fair: borage, black currant seeds; poor: all commercial food oils; supplements: encapsulated 10% GLA cold-pressed (no solvent) evening primrose oil.

• absorption from intestine; also absorbed through skin;

• improved by: sufficient bile;

• antagonized by: insufficient bile;

• stability: destroyed by light (generates free radicals), oxygen (peroxides = rancidity), & heat (increases rate of spoilage by light & oxygen; above 160*C, twisted trans-fatty acids begin to form); frying & deep-frying is very destructive;

• storage: in fat (adipose) cells; in cell membranes; in membranes surrounding intracellular organelles;

• excretion: not excreted; converted to other important substances;

• metabolism: converted into derivatives and prostaglandins;

• caution: may worsen temporal lobe epilepsy & manic depressive symptoms;

• precursor from which body makes DGLA, the parent of beneficial Series 1 Prostaglandins;

• through Prostaglandins, lower blood pressure, make platelets less sticky, decrease inflammation, enhance sodium & water excretion by kidneys; enhance immune function;

• lower cholesterol & triglycerides;

• measurement: milligrams; grams;

• optimum (SONA) average ranges not set; estimated optimum: 300 to 500 mg/day (from 3000 - 5000 mg. of Evening Primrose Oil);

• individual optimum needs to be determined individually;

• minimum (EC RDA) not yet established; healthy body can convert LA into GLA;

• less than RDA: no official figures;

• deficiency of GLA from lack of Omega 6 oils in diet; inability to convert LA to GLA due to faulty diet, lack of necessary minerals & enzymes, slowed enzyme activity due to age, or genetic inability to convert;

• symptoms might include: dry skin; PMS; atopic eczema;

• toxicity: rare, usually due to traces of solvents in GLA-containing oil;

• reversed by: changing to oil not solvent extracted;

• treatment of PMS (combined with Vitamins C & B-6, & minerals Zn & Mg);

• treatment of atopic eczema;

• improve skin texture & smoothness; useful in skin moisturizer creams;

• prevent alcohol hangover;

• reduces both high blood pressure (hypertension) and platelet aggregation, as well as decreasing cholesterol and triglyceride levels, reducing risk of heart attack;

• may relieve symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis. About two-thirds of patients suffering from moderate cases of the disease reported complete freedom from symptoms;

• infants who develop eczema when switched from mother’s milk (rich in DGLA) to cow’s milk (no DGLA) respond extremely well to GLA supplementation;

• hyperactive children, who generally exhibit low levels of PGE1 and GLA, respond positively to oral administration of GLA;

• transformed human cancer cells in tissue culture, which lose their capacity to transform LA into GLA & to make Series 1 Prostaglandins, are killed by GLA;

• useful for losing weight;

• used successfully to treat fibrocystic (benign) breast disease;

• helpful in Sjogren’s syndrome in which tear & salivary glands dry up;

• patients with multiple sclerosis, a disease characterized by faulty metabolism of unsaturated fatty acids, benefit from GLA supplementation; most MS patients receiving GLA supplements report feeling better, & show objective improvements;

General - essential fatty acid derivative; Omega 3;

• found in cold water fish oils and certain mioroalgae; 20% (EPA) found in certain snake oils;

• history: Eskimo consuming traditional diet high in fat & proteins found free of most degenerative conditions in 1972; EPA (& DHA, which may convert back to EPA) found to be key protective ingredient by 1978; EPA research goes wild in 1980, & continues;

• sources: best: meat along belly, around fins, & behind gills (shoulder) of cold water, high fat fish; good: cold water, high fat fish; fair: low fat, cold water fish; poor: warm water fish; supplements: encapsulated fresh fish body oils (cold water, high fat); fish liver oils; best fish oils contain about 18% EPA & 12% DHA (Omega 3s);

• absorption from intestine; can also be absorbed through skin;

• improved by: sufficient bile;

• antagonized by: insufficient bile;

• stability: destroyed by light (generates free radicals), oxygen (peroxides = rancidity), & heat (increases rate of spoilage by light & oxygen; above 160*C, twisted trans-fatty acids begin to form); frying & deep-frying is very destructive;

• storage: in fat (adipose) cells; in cell membranes; in membranes surrounding intracellular organelles;

• excretion: not excreted; excess is "burned" to generate energy;

• metabolism: converted into Series 3 Prostaglandins in the body, according to need;

• interactions: fish oils contain no Vitamin E (in nature not necessary at low temperature in ocean); this needs to be added when oil is used in warm human body; uses up Vitamin E in human body;

• part of membranes of all cells, & of membranes around intracellular organelles;

• blocks formation of detrimental Series 2 Prostaglandins; decreases blood pressure, inflammation; increases sodium & water loss; enhances immune function;

• makes platelets less sticky; increases bleeding time (by about 60%);

• may be helpful in arthritis & other inflammatory disorders;

• may be helpful in certain kinds of cancer;

• may be helpful in kidney disease;

• lowers insulin requirements in diabetics;

• part of membranes of all cells, & of membranes around intracellular organelles;

• needed For the regulation of all bodily functions and the breakdown of dietary fats within the body;

• essentials for the growth and functional development of the brain in infants;

• essential for visual and neurological in infants.

• required for maintenance of normal brain function in adults;

• low levels linked to Alzheimers disease;

• low levels linked to learning disorders (ADD);

• low levels linked to depression in humans;

• measurement: milligrams; grams;

• optimum (SONA) average ranges not yet known; estimated requirement: perhaps 1% of calories (2 - 3 grams/day);

• individual optimum needs to be determined individually;

• minimum (EC RDA) not yet established;

• less than RDA: no official figures; suggested: more than 95% of population is getting less Omega 3s from their foods than minimum required for health;

• deficiency of EPA and DHA from lack of Omega 3s in diet;

• symptoms might include: skin afflictions, high blood pressure, high cholesterol, high triglycerides, joint problems, tumors, kidney malfunctions;

• toxicity: not likely, except if diet lacks Vitamin E & selenium;

• reversed by: addition of Vitamin E & selenium to diet;

• therapeutic dose: 2 to 4 grams of EPA/DHA per day;

• reduces both high blood pressure (hypertension) and platelet aggregation, reducing the risk of heart attack;

• reduce total cholesterol & detrimental LDL, & increase beneficial HDL;

• reduce triglyceride levels by up to 60% or even more;

• transformed human cancer cells in tissue culture are killed by EPA;

• used in treatment of psoriasis;

• may be helpful in kidney disease;

• counteracts some of detrimental effects of immunosuppressive drugs used to prevent rejection of tissue & organ transplants;

• may be useful in diabetics; lowers insulin requirements; close monitoring of insulin requirement is important;

• protects against age-related macular degeneration;

• DHA may be helpful in neurologic disease and Alzheimer's disease;

• may help to reduce the symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis;

• high doses may help with Raynaud's phenomenon;

• high doses (20 grams of fish oil daily) may help with lupus;

• when taken along with calcium, EFA's may help prevent osteoporosis;

• regular use of fish oil may reduce the pain of menstrual cramps;

• EPA/DHA have a positive effect on diseases such as hypertension, arthritis, atherosclerosis, depression, adult-onset diabetes, myocardial infarction, thrombosis and some cancers.

• synergists: Vitamin E, selenium;

5. SUMMARY

Balanced ratio of GLA - EPA\DHA

As this article illustrates, both omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids are essential for optimal health and a lack of either one or both can lead to many disease conditions. While there is no clear-cut scientific consensus as to the correct balance between the omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids, we can look to nature to obtain guidelines on this important question. All  of the comparative data from various species show a predominance of the omega-6 fatty acids over the omega-3. Since the omega-3 fatty acids are preferentially metabolized in the body, a ratio of 4-1 in favour of the omega-6 fatty acids will insure a balanced composition at the cellular level. Such a ratio recommendation would be applicable when the parent acids, linoleic acid (w6 series) and alpha-linolenic acid (w3 series) are the predominant constituents in the diet. On the other hand, the longer chain derivatives such as gamma-linolenic acid (GLA), dihomo-gamma-linolenic acid (DGLA), arachidonic acid (AA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) are biologically more active and are incorporated into cell structure more effectively. Also, EPA is preferentially incorporated into cell membranes at the expense of AA. In situations where these longer chain polyunsaturated fatty acids are provided in the diet as food supplements, a ratio of 1:1 between GLA and EPA\DHA would be desirable to ensure a correct balance at the cellular level.

D. AMINO ACIDS

Of the six nutrients–Carbohydrates, Fats, Proteins, Vitamins, Minerals and Water–that are present in the food we eat, proteins have received far more attention from both the scientific community and the food industry. Proteins are considered to be an indispensible constituent of all living cells.

However, since it is the amino acids that make up a protein molecule, and the quality of a protein is determined in the first place by its amino acid composition, more emphasis should be placed on these basic building blocks. Recent research has demonstrated that these amino acids have a vital role in the physiological functions at the cellular level.

With the ongoing research, the status of amino acids will be raised to the levels of vitamins and minerals, Dietary supplementation of individual amino acids will be a norm to provide an adequate and balanced nutrient intake to ensure proper nutrition and good health.

The importance of amino acids goes far beyond protein synthesis; amino acids serve as precursors for many compounds including neurotransmitters, mucopolysaccharides and enzyme cofactors. The following paragraphs will outline some of the properties of these amazing molecules, the amino acids.

Chemistry of Amino Acids

Amino acids are composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sometimes sulphur and are essential for life. To a chemist they look like this:

where R can represent various chemical groups. The R will be different in each amino acid and will determine its nature and activity. Amino acids may function alone, or in short sequences called peptides, or in long chains called proteins.

Amino acids can be either a D or L form; while they are composed of the same subunits, they are not identical, rather they are mirror images of each other. Imagine your right and left hands; they both have a palm, four fingers and a thumb but you cannot wear a right-handed glove on your left hand. Similiarly, only the L form of amino acids can link together to form chains (proteins). Natural amino acids are in the L form. Commercially available natural amino acids are isolated from proteins which contain only L-amino Acids. D- or DL-(a mixture of D and L) amino acids can be produced synthetically or through modification of L-amino acids.

With the proper starting materials (obtained from the diet), the body is able to synthesize many amino acids which are known as Non-Essential Amino Acids. Others, which the body cannot synthesize, and, like vitamins, must be provided in the daily diet, are known as Essential Amino Acids.

*L-Arginine and L-Histidine are semi-essential, necessary for normal growth and development but not required for the maintenance of nitrogen balance8.

**Cysteine is essential for pre-term babies.

Amino acids are the building blocks of protein and consequently, they are also the digestive breakdown products of protein. Many dietary proteins have generous amounts of some amino acids while lacking others. Careful dietary planning requires the balancing of various proteins in order to provide adequate amounts of all the essential amino acids. The most deficient essential amino acid in a dietary protein is called the limiting amino acid.

Remember that the body requires adequate amounts of all twenty amino acids in order to make proteins. The terms essential and non-essential refer only to the body's ability to manufacture them.

Amino Acids in Proteins

Protein digestion begins in the stomach where digestive enzymes cut the protein into fragments which are further cleaved into individual amino acids by enzymes found in the small intestine. L-Amino acids are absorbed by active transport processes from the small intestine into mucosal cells from which they diffuse passively into the bloodstream8. Some of these amino acids are used by the body to make new proteins. Each of the body's cells contains genetic information in the form of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) including the recipe for each of the more than 100,000 different proteins which the body manufactures. Protein synthesis occurs within the cytoplasm of cells.

Proteins have a wide variety of functions. There are structural proteins such as collagen, found in connective tissue and bone, and contractile proteins such as actin and myosin found in skeletal muscle.

Other specialized protiens known as enzymes are biological catalysts and include the digestive enzymes trypsin and chymotrypinogen, the electrolyte-balancing enzymes, Na+ +K+ATPAse and the nucleic acid synthesizing enzyme, DNA polymerase. Enzymes require specific temperatures and pH ranges in order to work. They also often require other molecules known as cofactors21.

Hormones are molecules which carry messages from one region of the body to another. Insulin, ACTH and parathyroid hormone are all proteins while others such as the steroid hormones are not proteins8.

The ability of the body to ward off many infectious agents is based, to a large extent, on the presence of a special class of proteins known as antibodies. These substances recognize foreigh materials in the body. They bind to them, rendering them inactive until the other defense mechanisms can respond and remove these potentially harmful complexes. Thrombin and fibrinogen are necessary for the clotting of blood, another defense mechanism21.

Dietary protein is also important in maintaining the nitrogen balance which is a result of the body's continual intake and excretion of nitrogenous compounds. The human body cannot utilize the nitrogen which is found in the air and must obtain it in a combined form such as the amino acids in proteins. The body then uses this nitrogen to synthesize other nitrogenous compounds such as DNA, non-essential amino acids, neurotransmitters, and mucopolysaccharides. The net dietary intake of nitrogen-containing compounds must be adequate to meet these anabolic (synthesizing) demands⁸.

Short chains of amino acids are known as peptides and, like proteins, they have varied functions. Glutathione is a peptide that has recently attracted considerable attention due to its antioxidant and detoxicant properties. It is composed of only three amino acids: glutamic acid, cysteine, and glycine. Glutathione forms conjugates with toxic compounds including heavy metals which reduce their reactivity and aid the body's natural excretory mechanisms. As well, Glutathione, along with the enzyme Glutathione Peroxidase, helps to deactivate dangerous free-radical molecules. A synergism exists between Glutathione and the other antioxidants, Vitamin E and Selenium. Glutathione is an integral part of the blood sugar controlling compound Glucose Tolerance Factor (GTF)⁴⁰.

Carnitine is another simple peptide and an essential metabolite, being the key substance in carrying fatty acid into the mitochondria (‘power-house’) of cells for oxidation and energy production. It thus controls the rate of fat utilization to power muscle contractions, especially for sustained work, and is particularly important to the heart. It may also help in the combustion of lysine and valine for up to 10% of the energy supply. It is found in almost all animal tissues and is concentrated in muscles. It is, in fact, a trimethylated carboxyl-alcohol, made readily from methionine (which donates the three methyl groups) and lysine in the presence of niacin, pyridoxine, vitamin C, iron, and perhaps manganese^4,22.

Carnitine is abundant in red meat, less so in dairy products and fish, and scanty in vegetables. Of the building blocks for carnitine, lysine is low in corn, wheat, and rice, and methionine is low in beans. Vegetarians should mix their plant protein intake properly to ensure a balnced supply of the needed amino acids.

Carnitine has been reported to lower blood cholesterol and triglyceride and raise HDL^{1, 31}. In patients with ischaemic heart disease, carntine reduces symptoms, ECG changes, and exercise tolerance. It apparently stimulates pancreatic and stomach secretions. Carnitine deficiency may arise in face of increased demands, lack of raw material, defective manufacture or excessive loss. Severe shortage causes extreme weakness, muscle cramps, heart enlargement and failure, and brain degeneration⁴. L-carnitine, the natural form, is inhibited by the D-form, causing muscle weakness which is reversible when the D-form is stopped.

Amino Acids in Intermediary Metabolism

A great many biochemical reactions require amino acids in their free forms rather than in the chains known as peptides or proteins. They play important roles in many metabolic processes which convert foods into utilizable materials and provide energy for the growth and maintenance of the body. They are precursors to neurotransmitters, the chemicals which carry messages from one nerve to another or to a target tissue. Amino acids may stimulate or inhibit a large number of reactions and may combine with other molecules to form coenzymes. The following paragraphs will discuss some of these unique actions.

L-Arginine

L-Arginine is very important in the growth and development of children due to its stimulation of growth hormone secretion. This action continues throughout life but is more important in children by virtue of their rapid growth rates. Secreted by the anterior pituitary, growth hormone (also known as somatotropin or STH) stimulates the addition of muscle to the body of adults as well as children. It increases the transport of amino acids into cells thus making them available for the synthesis of muscle protein. This hormone also enhances the burning of fatty tissues and the deposition of muscle⁸.

Arginine inhibits tumour development and growth. It has been shown to significantly reduce the number of Ascites tumor cells in experimental animals and to increase the lifespan of these animals²⁶. Proper production of collagen with high tensile strength necessary in wound healing is stimulated by this amino acid³⁹. L-Arginine affects the production of normal sperm levels in adult males³⁸.

L-Arginine plays an essential role in the Urea Cycle, and thus the detoxification of the ammonia produced in protein metabolism, and normalization of muscle metabolism of nitrogen. It is in the Urea Cycle that L-Arginine is converted to L-Ornithine which eventually cycles back to L-Arginine²¹.

There have been some reports that excessive amounts of L-Arginine may precipitate certain schizophrenias and that use of high levels of L-Arginine without a concomitant increase in L-Lysine may encourage the replication of the herpes virus²⁷.

There are three essential amino acids in this group: L-Leucine, L-Isoleucine and L-Valine. They share a common feature distinctive amongst the amino acids -a non-terminal (hence branched) methyl group to the main carbon chain. Together, they make up 40% of the essential amino acid requirement in man, and 35% of the striated muscle bulk. They all play important roles in body reactions to stress, in that:

1. they are broken down by preference when under demand, hence ‘sparing’ other amino acids^4,42

2. they encourage protein building to combat the extra losses (anti-catabolic); and

3. unlike most other amino acids, they can directly burn for energy in striated muscles, as an additional fuel to glucose.

Thus in conditions like surgery, trauma and severe burns and infections, etc., more BCAA are required than other amino acids, and Leucine more so than the other two. The BCAA also serve as neurotransmitters (e.g. leucine encephalins).

Vitamins B1,B2, B6, and copper and magnesium are closely linked to different stages of BCAA metabolism.

BCAA's are abundant in fish, meat, poultry, bean, soy protein, various nuts and seeds, eggs and dairy products. When given as individual amino acids, Isolecine is the best absorbed of the three members. For rapid replacement, however, BCAA's by intravenous infusion are helpful in severe injuries, sepsis, or post-operative states².

L-Cysteine

L-Cysteine is an important sulpur-containing amino acid which can be synthesized in the body from L-Methionine and L-Serine²¹. It is a powerful antioxidant, which binds to dangerous and reactive free molecules rendering them harmless.

In combination with vitamins C and B1, L-Cysteine protects cells from the toxic effects of radiation and aldehyde compounds which are found in smog, in tobacco smoke and in the metabolic by-products of ingested rancid (oxidized) fats ^20,28,43. It is the sulphur-containing amino acid found in the peptide Glutathione (mentioned earlier) and is necessary for the production of Coenzyme A (a coenzyme which is essential in a broad range of biochemical reactions, especially those involving the transfer of acyl groups and fatty acid metabolism²¹. This amino acid is also instrumental in stimulating the immune system, most notably the macophage phagocytic activity which rids the body of foreign toxins, bacteria and viruses. L-Cysteine is also active in detoxifying ingested poisons in the gastro-intestinal tract and clearing mucus obstructions in bronchial tissues in such diseases as bronchitis, tuberculosis and emphysema²³. L-Cysteine and L-Methionine have been shown to exert a protective effect against the damaging sequalae of copper toxicity and of radiation effects on skin and muscous membranes. L-Cysteine is concentrated in the hair and wool of humans and other animals. The growth and health of these tissues are dependent on adequate amounts of this amino acid.

L-Cysteine should not be confused with L-Cystine, a related but non-identical compound. L-Cystine does not possess the very important antioxidant property which is central to many of the actions of L-Cysteine, but the strong disulphide bond in cystine helps to maintain the shape of protein molecules.

L-Cysteine may prevent hypoglycemic responses by blocking insulin activity and should, therfore, be used with caution by diabetics²⁷.

The three members of this group, L-Glutamic acid (GA), L-Glutamine (GAM), and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), form an all important trio widely distributed in body proteins and enzymes but highly concentrated in brain tissue where they play key roles in energy supply and brain functions.

GA is a non-essential amino acid and a precursor of the other two, though in fact, all three are interconvertible. GAM, a neutral salt, is the only one of the trio which can readily pass from the blood to the brain, where it can be converted into GA and act as an important energy source, a role it shares only with glucose. The trio are vital N₂ donors in the formation of other non-essential amino acids, mucopolysaccharides, DNA, Glutathione, niacin (vitamin B3), and folic acid. Also, they are involved in the metabolism of pyrroles (hence uric acid) and arginine, and in the detoxification of brain ammonia. In addition, GA is a stimulatory and GABA an inhibitory neurotransmitter; and GBA is reported to lower the blood pressure in hypertensives¹³. GAM and GA reduce alcohol craving in alcoholics^33,37,41 and protect cells from the deleterious effects of alcohol; they have also been reported to improve memory and IQ in elderly people⁶. GA is the most abundant amino acid in food being rich in all animal proteins and dairy products; however, little GAM or GABA can be found ready-made in dietary proteins apart from brain tissue.

In man, doses of GA at 1g/kg/day or over may cause brain damage or seizures. Monosodium glutamate (MSG, the Na salt of GA0 is commonly used to enhance flavours in Chinese food. When taken in excess (e.g.2-3g or more), it may cause the ‘Chinese Restaurant Syndrome with headache, dizziness, flushing and weakness.

L-Histidine

L-Histidine is an amino acid widely distributed in proteins and enzymes. It is a metabolic intermediate in the production of Histamine, a compound involved in smooth muscle contraction and vasodilation; neurotransmission (by stimulation of adenylate cyclase activity); and the stimulation of gastric secretion²⁹.

Oral administration of L-Histidine has been useful in the diagnosis of ulcers of the digestive tract and gastric secretory disorders. In addition, L-Histidine is quite beneficial in the management of rheumatoid arthritis; these patients have blood levels of L-Histidine averaging one quarter those of normal individuals^10,11,18.

L-Lysine

L-Lysine is an essential amino acid which often limits the quality of vegetarian diets due, in part, to its low availability in wheat, rice, oat, millet and sesame protein. It is especially important for the optimal growth and development of children.

L-Lysine is widely distributed in body proteins and enzymes and is involved in the synthesis of collagen ( a vital component of tendons and connective tissue), pipecolic acid (a neurotransmitter), and carnitine, a compound required for the utilization of fatty acids in energy production. For this reason, L-Lysine plays an important role in growth and repair mechanisms throughout life.

This amino acid has been shown to be efficacious in the management of herpes simplex, especially with concomitant administation of ascorbic acid. L-Lysine interferes with the body's metabolism of L-Arginine, a compound vital for replication of the virus. This results in a decrease in both the frequency and severity of outbreaks of herpes^15,27.

L-Methionine, an essential amino acid, is, like L-Cysteine, a sulphur-containing compound and a powerful antioxidant which protects cells from the ravages of dangerous free radical molecules²⁰. Vitamin B6 helps to maintain this free radical scavenging capacity²¹.

L-Methionine also functions in the initiation of endogenous protein synthesis and in the biochemical transfer of methyl groups, a process which is important in the production of many compounds including choline, creatine, and adrenaline²¹. It is also needed in the production of Lecithin and is the limiting amino acid in many foods including soya beans, peanuts, cotton seeds and potatoes. A deficiency of L-methionine may result in anemia, retarded protein synthesis and fatty infiltration of the liver. Like L-Cysteine, L-Methionine has been shown to counteract many of the symptoms of copper toxicity¹⁷.

L-Ornithine is a metabolically important amino acid which is neither incorporated into protein nor has any role in engogenous protein synthesis²¹. L-Ornithine is about twice as effective as L-Arginine in stimulating the secretion of growth hormone²⁷. Growth hormone increases the body's metabolism of adipose (fat) tissue. It also enhances the transport of amino acids into intra-cellular spaces where they become available for increased synthesis of protein⁸. Like L-Arginine, L-Ornithine plays an important role in wound healing as a result of its effect on growth hormone release and stimulation of the immune system. These two amino acids are interconverted in the Urea Cycle where they effect the detoxification of ammonia²¹. L-Ornithine is valuable in the production of polyamines which stabilize membrane structure and DNA integrity as well as promote cell growth²¹.

L-Phenylalanine is an essentail amino acid widely distributed in the proteins of the human body and is, as well, a vital component in the production of the powerful adrenal catecholamines. Catecholamines are neurotransmitter substances with a wide scope of activities and incluse the compounds epinephrine (adrenaline), dopamine and neoepinephrine (noradrenaline)²⁹. Vitamins B6 and C are necessary for the conversion of L-Phenylalanine into these neurotransmitters^{8, 30}. Systemic functions affected by the catecholamines include heart rate, cardiac output, blood pressure, oxygen consumption, blood glucose levels, lipid energy metabolism and central nervous system action²⁹. L-Phenylalanine, by virtue of its role in dopamine and norepinephrine production, is useful in the management of some forms of depression³. (It should not be used by patients who are taking MAO inhibitors–a class of prescriptive antidepressants).

In addition, this amino acid, as a result of its activity on norephinephrine metabolism, may suppress the appetite. Because L-Phenylalanine increases norephenephrine stores rather than diminishes them, as do prescriptive and over the counter appetite suppressants, it has been suggested that there is no diminution in effectivenss with time nor wild cycling of appetite levels²². L-Phenylalanine also stimulates brain production of the hormone cholecystokinin, which appears to act as a signal indicating a sense of ‘fullness’ and has been shown to cause experimental animals to stop eating sooner^12,24. L-Phenylalanine may increase blood pressure and should, therefore, be used with caution by hypertensives. it should also be restricted in case of certain tumours, notably melanoma which needs L-Phenylalanine to produce its pigment, melanin.

As mentioned previously, D-amino acids are not incorporated into proteins. D-Phenylalanine is the mirror image of L-Phenylalanine being composed of the same chemical units in a slightly different conformation (in the same way, your right hand is a mirror image of your left and both are composed of a palm, four fingers and a thumb). Also, D-Phenylalanine cannot be transformed into noradrenaline, dopamine and the other neurotransmitters.

D-Phenylalanine may be effective in the management of certain types of severe pain due to its ability to inhibit the enzymes that normally break down enkephalins, the body's natural morphine-like pain killers. The resulting heightened levels of these substances results in an increased ability to withstand pain²⁷.

It has been suggested that chronically obese individuals may have an actual addiction to food. This may be related to the release of enkephalins in response to eating. By preventing their breakdown and therefore maintaining high levels, it has been suggested that D-Phenylalanine may reduce the craving for food in these individuals²⁷.

Taurine is a naturally occuring amino acid which, like L-Ornithine, is not incorporated into proteins. Structurally, Taurine is distinct from the other amino acids and is available in only one form. The D and L naming system does not apply to Taurine. Although mammals capable of synthesizing some Taurine from L-Cysteine, the majority is obtained from the diet. Mollusks such as oysters, clams, mussels and squid are the most abundant source of this amino acid. A vast amount of research has been carried out in Japan concerning the nutritional value of these rich sources of Taurine⁴⁶. Taurine is the second most prevalent amino acid in human milk, however, it is not found in significant amounts in cow's milk. The milk of lactating cows contains roughly 30 times as much Taurine as commercially available cow's milk. Taurine is abundant in brain tissue, especially in infants, and is concentrated in areas concerning smell, taste and memory. Infants need Taurine for proper brain development, but they may not have the capacity to synthesize enough of the amino acid. Supplementation of Taurine may be necessary in low birth weight infants and/or infants not receiving mother's milk¹⁹.

Taurine is important in the functional control of all electrically excitable tissues, especially the brain and the heart. Low Taurine levels have been observed in brain tissues of subjects with certain types of epilepsy. This compound has anti-convulsant activity and studies in experimental animals indicate that it may be valuable in the control of certain types of epilepsy. The subject of two recent international symposia, Taurine has been proposed as a neuromodulator or neurotransmitter in the Central Nervous System (CNS)7.

Taurine is the most prevalent amino acid in cardiac tissues, representing greater than 50% of the free amino acid pool in the human heart. Taurine levels are reduced by myocardial infarction and increased by congestive heart failure. This compound has an inotropic effect on the heart (it makes the heart beat harder) probably due to its effect on calcium movement. Ongoing studies are attempting to define the role of Taurine in the development of stroke and hypertension^45,46. In rats, Taurine lowers the blood pressure probably by antagonising renin, a reanal hormone which raises blood pressure⁴⁸.

L-Tryptophan is an essential amino acid vital in protein structure and function as well as in the production of the neurotransmitter serotonin²⁹. it is one of only a few biochemicals capable of passing the blood-brain-barrier, reflecting its vital role in brain chemistry. This amino acid is often limited in the diet, being present in quantitatively small amounts in dietary protein and rapidly destroyed even by low cooking temperatures.

L-Tryptophan is the body's precursor for serotonin, an inhibitory neurotransmitter that functions in sleep physiology and sensory perception²⁹. Consumption of dietary L-Tryptophan, (along with vitamins B6 and C which are necessary for serotonin production) especially just prior to bedtime is very effective in reducing sleep onset latency without producing the adverse effects of changing sleep stages^8,30. Consequently, individuals with sleep disorders (insomnia) find that it takes less time to fall asleep and more restful time is spent sleeping with the use of L-Tryptophan⁵.

L-Tryptophan has also been reported to have a calming effect on nervous individuals and a stimulating effect on those experiencing depression. In other words, it appears to be a mood stabilizer⁵.

L-Tyrosine is readily manufactured in the body from the essential amino acid L-Phenylalanine, therby indicating that the total dietary requirement for L-Phenylalanine reflects the requirement for both of these amino acids. L-Tyrosine is broadly distributed in the proteins and enzymes in the body and has a functional role in neurotransmission (conduction of nerve impulses), mood levels, and free radical neutralization.

L-Tyrosine is similiar to L-Phenylalanine in its biochemical participation in the production of the neurotransmitters, the catecholamines. Catecholamines have profound hormonal activities in the brain as well as many other tissues including the heart, arteries, bronchioles, and uterus. it has been suggested that this stimulation of neurotransmitter synthesis in the brain may result in increased mental clarity and alertness as well as improved memory⁴⁴. The catecholamine, norephenephrine, derived from L-Tyrosine, plays an important role in mental anxiety and depression. 

Indeed, L-Tyrosine has been used medically, with excellent results, as a mood elevator and antidepressant^9,14. (L-Tyrosine should not be used by patients taking MAO inhibitors–a class of prescriptive antidepressants.) L-Tyrosine has also been shown to be highly effective in alleviating the discomforts of hay fever, grass and pollen allergies^25,32.

The various biochemical processes just described depend on the availability of adequate amounts of amino acids in specific tissues. The first priority, is to provide the body with adequate amounts of amino acids for protein synthesis. Essential amino acids must be available in the diet along with precursors for the synthesis of non-essential ones to provide all 20 amino acids for the body's anabolic demands. The nutritional value of many foods are limited by the absence of one or more essential amino acids. These foods should not be avoided but should, instead, be complimented with foods rich in the amino acids of concern.

Having provided, in the daily diet, sufficient high quality protein, some individuals may need to take supplements of individual amino acids. For maximum absorption, these should be taken on an empty stomach. Individual amino acids, but not whole proteins, are absorbed by active transport processes in the upper regions of the small intestine. The absorption of individual free amino acids (as opposed to amino acids from proteins) is not dependent on the efficiency of peptide bond cleavage beforehand by digestive enzymes⁸.

Amino acids are available in either the natural L-form or the synthetic DL-form (composed of D and L molecules). Only L-amino acids are absorbed from the digestive tract by the active transport processes and only the L-amino acids are incorporated into proteins. D-amino acids may even compete with L-amino acids, slowing the synthetic processes. Some D-amino acids, such as D-Phenylalanine, possess unique properties and may provide benefit for some individuals.

Although they are available in both capsule and tablet form, there are advantages to taking amino acids in capsules. Tableting processes frequently involve high temperatures which may denature amino acids. All tablets contain some excipients which are designed to bind the tablet together and then to release the ingredients in the digestive tract. Capsules, although they are slightly more expensive to manufacture, have the advantage of requiring no excipients which might bind to the amino acids and inhibit their absorption. The disintegration of capsules is more rapid than that of tablets allowing more rapid absorption of the nutrients. Those who do not wish to consume the gelatin capsule may opt to empty the contents and discard the capsule.

Commercially, amino acids are available alone or in the form of salts. The salts contain a significant amount of inert material. The wise consumer will inspect a label to see how much amino acid they are buying. For example, L-Cysteine is a pure amino acid while L-Cysteine HCl is a salt, containing only 77% of natural L-Cysteine. Pure amino acids are more expensive but are biologically more active.

Additionally the presence of these salt groups on amino acids may, in some cases, limit the absorption of the amino acid. The natural active transport processes may not carry the amino acids with the bulky groups present and may require additional digestion.

Some amino acids such as L-Ornithine and L-Lysine are unstable on their own and therefore only available in the salt forms. Their labels should still indicate how much of the pure amino acid you are buying.

Absorption of amino acids occurs in the upper regions of the small intestine. In order to limit the interaction of amino acids with other molecules which might inhibit their absorption, it is generally felt that they should be taken with water, on an empty stomach.

The action of amino acids varies greatly from individual to individual, and depends to a great extent on specific amino acid deficiencies. The effects of regular amino acid supplementation can vary from less than one hour as in the case of Trypophan when used as a sleep inducer, to periods of one month or more. It should also be emphasized that the activities of amino acids depend on a number of vitamins and minerals and therefore concomitant supplementation with a well balanced vitamin and chelated mineral programme is essential for maximum benefit from the amino acid supplement. Finally, good dietary habits should be followed and help from a qualified dietician or nutritionist in planning a balanced diet is often good advice.

References

1. Bell, F.P., Delucia A., Bryant L.R., Patt C.S., and Greenberg, H.S., Canitine metabolism in Macaca arctoides: the effects of dietary change and fasting on serum triglyceride, unesterified canitine, esterified (acyl) canitine, and beta hydroxybutyrate. Amer J Clin Nutr 1982; 36:115-121.

2. Blackburn, G.L., Branched chain amino acid administration and metabolism during starvation, injury and infection. Surgery 1979;86:307.

3. Borison, R., Maple, P., Havdale, H., and Diamond, B. Metabolism of an antidepressant amino acid. Fed Proc 1978; 37(3): 3377.

4. Braverman , E.R., and Pfeiffer C.C. The Healing Nutrients Within: Facts, Findings and New Research on Amino Acids. New Canaan, Conn.: Keats Publishing Co., 1987.

5. Brown, G.C. Effects of L-trytophan on sleep onset insomniacs. Waking and sleeping 102. 1979.

6. Denman, R.B., and Wedler, F.C. Association-dissociation of mammalian brain glutamine synthetase: effects of metal ions and other ligands. Archiv Biochem Biophys 1984; 232(2): 427-440.

7. The Effects of Taurine on Excitable Tissues, Schaffer S.W., Baskin S.I., and Kocsis J.J. (eds). New York: Spectrum Pub. Inc., 1981

8. Review of Medical Physiology. 9th Ed. Ganong W.F. Los Altos: Lange Medical Publications, 1979.

9. Gelenburg A.J. Tyrosine for the treatment of depression. Am J Psychiatry 1980; 137:622.

10. Gerber D., Harris M., and Frizzeu R. Treatment of rheumatoid arthritis with histidine - a double blind trial. Arthritis and Rheumatism 1973; 16(1).

11. Gerger D.A. Treatment of rheumatoid arthritis with histidine. Arthritis and Rheumatism 1969; 12:295.

12. Gibbs J., and Smith G.P. Cholecystokinin and satiety in rats and rhesus monkeys. Am J Clin Nutr 1977; 30: 358.

13. Gillis R.A., Yamada K.A., Di Mocco J.A. Williford D.J., Segal S.A., Hamosh P., and Norman W.P. Central gamma-aminobutyric acid involvement in blood pressure control. Fed Proc 1984; 43(1):32-38.

14. Goldberg I.K. L-Tyrosine in depression. Lancet 1980; 364.

15. Griffith R.S., Norins A.L., and Kagan C.A. A multicentered study of lysine therapy in herpes simplex infection. Dermatologica 1978; 156: 257-267.

16. Growdon J.H. Neurotransmitter precursors in the diet: their uses in the treatment of brain diseases, in : Nutrition and the Brain 3, Wurtman J.R., Wurtman J.J. (eds.) , New York; Raven Press, 1979

17. Jensen L.S., and Maurice D.V. Influence of sulphur amino acids in copper toxicity in chicks. J Nutr 1979; 109: 91.

18. Korein J. Letter NEJM 1979; 301:1066.

19. Kuna P., Petyrek P., and Dostal M. Modification of toxic and radioprotective effects of cystamine by glutathione in mice. Radiobio Radiother May 1978; 599-601.

20. Lafleur M., Woldhuis J., and Loman H. Effects of sulfhydryl compounds on the radiation damage in biologically active DNA. Int J Radiant Biol 1980; 37(5): 493.

21. Lehninger A.L. Biochemistry. 2nd Ed. New York: Worth Pub. Inc., 1975.

22. Leibovitz B. Canitine–the Vitamin BT Phenomenon. New York: Dell Publishing Co., Inc., 1984.

23. MArtin r., Litt M., and Marriott C. The effect of mucolytic agents on the rheologic and transport properties of canine tracheal mucus. Rev Resp Dis 1980; 121:495.

24. Meyer J.H., and Grossman M.I. Comparison of d- and l-Phenylalanine as pancreatic stimulants. Am J Phys 1972; 222:1058.

25. Miller A. A comparative trial of Hyposensitiza-ation in 1973 in the treatment of hayfever using Pollinex and Alavac-P. Clin Allergy 1976; VI:556.

26. Milner J.A. and Stepanovich L.V. Inhibitory effect of dietary arginine on growth of Ehrich ascites tumor cells in mice. J Nutr 1979; 109:489.

27. Pearson D., and Shaw S. Life Extension - A Practical Scientific Approach. New York; Warner Books Inc. 1981.

28. Pekas, Larson, and Fell. Propachlor detoxification in the small intestine: Cysteine conjugation. J Toxicol Envir Health 1979;653.

29. Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics, The 5th Ed. Goodman, L.S. and Gilman, A.G. (eds.) . New York: MacMillan Pub. Co. Ltd., 1985.

30. Pike R.L., and Brown M.L. Nutrition an Integrated Approach. 2nd Ed. Toronto: John Wiley & Sons Inc., 1975.

31. Pola P, Tondi P, Dal Lago A, Sericchio M, and Flore R. Satistical evaluation of long-term L-carnitine therapy in hyperlipoproteinaemias. Drugs Exptl Clin Res 1983; IX (12): 925-934.

32. Purser J.R. Treatment of hayfever in general practice by hyposensitization using pollinex. Cur Med Res & Opin 1976;556.

33. Ravel J.M., Felsing B., Langford E.M., and Shive W. Reversal of alcohol toxicity by glutamine. J Biol Chem 1955; 214(2): 497.

34. Rogers L.L. Glutamine in the treatment of alcoholism. Quart J Studies in Alcohol 1957; 18(4):581.

35. Rogers L.L., and Pelton R.B. Effect of Glutamine on I.Q. scores of mentally deficient children. Tex Rep Biol Med 1957; 15(1): 84.

36. Rogers L.L., and Pelton R.B., and Williams R. Voluntary alcohol consumption by rats following administration of glutamine. J Biol Chem 1955; 214(2): 503.

37. Rogers L.L., and Pelton R.B., and Williams R. Amino acid supplementation and voluntary alcohol consumption by rats. J Biol Chem 1956; 220(1): 321.

38. Schachter A., Goldman J.A., and Zuckerman Z., Treatment of oligospermia with the amino acid arginine. J Urology 1973; 110:312.

39. Seifer E., Arginine: an essential Amino acid for injured rats. Surgery 1978; 84:224.

40. Sies H., and Wendel A., Functions of Glutathione. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1978.

41. Shive W., Glutamine in the treatment of peptic ulcer. Tex State J Med 1957; 53:840.

42. Slavin J.L., Lanners G., and Engstrom M.A., Amino acid supplements: beneficial or risky?, in: The Physician and Sportsmedicine, 1988; 16 (March): 221-224.

43. Sprince H., Parker, C., and Smith G., Comparison of protection by L-Ascorbic acid, L-Cysteine and adrenergic blocking agents against acetaldehyde, acrolein and formaldehyde toxicity: implications in smoking. Agents and Actions 1979; 914:407.

44. Stein R., Memory enhancement by central administration of noephenephrine. Brain Res 1975; 84.

45. Barbeau A., and Huxtable, R.J., (eds.) Taurine and Neurological Disorders. New York: Raven Press, 1978.

46. Huxtable R.J., and Pasants-Morales H. (Eds.) Taurine and Nutrition and Neurology. New York: Raven Press, 1982.

47. Williams R.J., Alcoholism: The Nutritional Approach. Austin, TX: Univ Tex Press, 1959.

48. Yamori, Y., Wang, H., Ikeda, K., Kihara, M., Nara, Y. and Horle, R., Role of sulphur amino acids in the prevention and regression of cardiovascular diseases, in: Sulfur Amino Acids: Biochemical and Clinical Aspects. New York: Allan,R., Liss Publishers, 1983; pp.103-116.

E. AMINO SUGARS

This section will be online shortly.

F. DIGESTIVE ENZYMES

In the early 1900's, the importance of vitamins in health and disease was recognized. This was followed by an emphasis on the roles played by minerals and trace elements. Nutritionists were not entirely satisfied with just vitamins, minerals and trace elements as their only weapons to achieve the optimal health of human beings. They felt that there was a missing link somewhere. Their dream came true about sixty years ago, when Dr. Edward Howell began his study of food enzymes and human health, and the missing link was then revealed. His enzyme philosophy, though not universally accepted by orthodox physicians and other health professionals, is shared by other well-known scientists like Drs. Loeb and Northrop of the Rockefeller Institute of Medicine, Professor R. Pearl of Johns Hopkins University, and Drs. MacArthur and Baille of the University of Toronto. Food enzymes are now considered "the third wave" in nutritional supplementation.

DEFINITION OF ENZYME

According to the American Pocket Medical Dictionary, (Nineteenth Edition), "enzyme" is defined as an organic compound, frequently a protein, which is able to accelerate or to produce by catalytic action some change in a substrate for which it is often specific. Such a general definition is accepted by medical doctors as well as nutritionists and scientists who are interested in food enzymes. They agree that humans, animals and plants are composed of cells with different activities, both inside and outside the cell membrane. All these activities need the presence of enzymes in order to function. Without enzymes, there will be no cellular activities. A cell without cellular activities is considered dead. Enzymes, like vitamins and essential minerals, are vital to all living things. 

In man, we have different enzymes in different systems. Those that are concerned with digestion are known as digestive enzymes which are secreted by special glands or mucosal cells along the digestive pathway. Their chief function is to metabolize the ingested food so that its components can be absorbed and utilized by our body. This whole process of digestion, absorption and utilization is known as "assimilation".

Food enzymes are digestive enzymes present in food or food supplements. Their sources can be animal (eg. uncooked meat) or vegetable in origin. In medical terms, digestive enzymes secreted by our digestive system inside our body are "endogenous". Those taken as food or food supplements (food enzymes) are "exogenous". Some common characteristics of these digestive enzymes are:

1. they function best at certain pH and temperature,

2. they are easily destroyed by high temperature, such as cooking and food processing, and

3. once destroyed, they must be replaced.

SIMPLE REVIEW OF THE DIGESTIVE ENZYME

Our food is mainly composed of proteins, carbohydrates, fats, water, vitamins, minerals and trace elements. The exact mechanisms of their assimilation (digestion, absorption and utilization) are very complicated. We classify digestive enzymes into four main groups:

1. Carbohydrase enzymes digest carbohydrates which might be simple monosaccharides (glucose, fructose and galactose), dissaccharides (sucrose, lactose and maltose) or complex polysaccharides (starch and fibres). The end products are monosaccharides.

2. Protease enzymes digest proteins which are then broken down to proteoses, peptones, polypeptides, dipeptides and finally the end products, amino acids.

3. Lipase enzymes digest fats, which are composed of neutral fat (triglycerides), phospholipids and cholesterols. The main end products of the digestion of fats are fatty acids and glycerides which are not water soluble. It is only with the aid of the bile acids that the majority of the fat is absorbed through the intestinal epithelial cells into the lymphatic system via the lacteals of the villi. About 10% of the fatty acids are absorbed into the portal blood and carried to the liver for further metabolism. Chylomicrons are small particles of fat formed in the blood during digestion of fat. They are covered with a protein coat which makes them hydrophilic (soluble), allowing a certain degree of suspension stability in the fluid medium (blood).

4. Cellulase enzymes digest cellulose which is a complex carbohydrate forming the framework of plant structures (fibres). It plays no significant role in human beings and is not found in the endogenous secretion of the human digestive enzymes. It may be an essential enzyme in herbivorous animals.

Digestion begins in the oral cavity (mouth) where food is chewed before swallowing. Proper chewing (mastication) is essential because it will allow:

1. the breakage of the undigestible cellulose coat around the nutrient portions of fruits and raw vegetables, and

2. better mixing of the digestive enzymes (ptyaline, an amylase from salivary glands) with the food particles.

The process of digestion is triggered before we even taste our food with our tongue. The sight of seeing a well prepared meal, the smell of our favourite food or even the thought of tasting a delicious dish, will make our mouth water. The enzymes are all ready for their prey.

Formally, the stomach was considered only as a store-house where mixing of the ingested food and gastric secretion (hydrochloric acid and digestive enzymes) occurred. The process was known as churning. Physiologists consider the stomach to be functionally divided into two major parts:

FIGURE: Simple anatomy of the stomach.

1. the upper part (the fundus and body) which is mainly concerned with the storage and mixing, and

2. the lower part (the antrum and the pylorus). The strong peristaltic movements in the antral portion of the stomach coupled with a narrow opening of the pylorus will create a better mixing or churning of the ingested food and gastric secretions. The resulting mixture of the gastric contents is known as "chyme" which has an appearance of a murky or milky semi-fluid substance.

The chyme is gradually emptied into the small intestine for further digestion and absorption. There are two sequences initiated as the stomach empties: 

1. the neurological sequence (the distension of the stomach by food will send signals via the nerves to the body's headquarters, the brain, which will then send orders through the nervous pathway to do the appropriate things) and

2. the hormonal sequence (the presence of food in the stomach also stimulates the release of a hormone known as gastrin from the antral mucosa. The gastrin in turn will control not only the secretion of highly acidic gastric juice by the gastric glands, but also the emptying of the stomach by enhancing the activity of the pyloric pump and simultaneously relaxing the outlet, the pylorus).

We can summarize the functions of the stomach as follows:

1. The upper part acts as a store-house where partial digestion of food is being initiated.

2. It secretes gastrin, hydrochloric acid and other enzymes which function best in an acidic environment.

3. Churning of food occurs in the lower part of the stomach, the antrum. The chyme so formed is emptied into the small intestine by the "pyloric pump" which is regulated by nervous and hormonal mechanisms.

When the chyme reaches the upper part of small intestine, the whole process of digestion and absorption is much more complicated. 

In a nutshell, the partially digested food from the stomach will be broken down to end products of carbohydrates, proteins and fats by enzymes secreted from the pancreas and small intestine. Bile is also secreted from the gallbladder for emulsification of the fat particles in our food so that the lipases can perform their job properly. The pancreatic juice is alkaline; the enzymes in the small intestine work best in an alkaline environment (i.e., with high pH). The control of the secretions from the gallbladder, pancreas and small intestine is both hormonal and neurological. The enzymes for each class of food (carbohydrates, proteins and fats) are specific but they make no distinction whether the food comes from animal or vegetable sources. The chief goal of the whole digestive process of food is to break down the three main components of food into their end products of simple sugars, (glucose, fructose and galactose), amino acids, fatty acids and glycerides. 

CONCEPTS OF DIGESTIVE ENZYMES

The orthodox school believes that our body is able to manufacture sufficient enzymes to metabolize our ingested food. Exogenous food enzymes would be required when there is a deficiency of such enzymes in our body. In cases of malabsorption due to pancreatic insufficiency, physicians prescribe pancreatic digestive enzymes (eg. pancreatin) as a replacement therapy.

However, over the past half century, a new concept of food enzymes has been proposed by some well known scientists, one of whom is Dr. Edward Howell. His good work is well presented in his two famous books:

1. Food Enzymes for Health and Longevity, Omangod Press (1980)

2. Enzyme Nutrition, Avery Publishing Group Inc. (1985)

Dr. Edward Howell, who is also known as The father of food enzyme research by nutritionists, has his own concept of food enzymes and their use. For the sake of simplicity, the whole concept can be summed up as follows:

1. Each one of us is given a limited supply of digestive enzymes at birth. This supply has to last a lifetime. The faster you use up your enzyme supply, the shorter your life will be.

2. Raw food contains good amounts of food enzymes which are easily destroyed by modern cooking. We obtain no exogenous food enzymes from our well-cooked food.

3. Exogenous enzymes from raw food are activated when the cell wall of the food is ruptured by chewing, and continue to function not only in the stomach but also in the upper part of the small intestine. Their activities work in a wide range of pH as compared with the endogenous digestive enzymes.

4. The Law of Adaptive Secretion of Digestive Enzymes. In 1904, The Theory of The Parallel Secretion of Enzymes was published by Professor B.P. Babkin in Russia. It stated that the three main digestive enzymes (amylase, protease and lipase) were secreted at the same strength, regardless of whether the food eaten was carbohydrate, protein or fat. This theory was accepted by many scientists, but not all. Another theory was proposed as early as 1907 and stressed again in1930. It held that only the corresponding enzymes of that particular food would be adequately secreted in the digestive system. Thus, one would expect that a baked potato would stimulate only the secretion of amylase (a carbohydrate digestive enzyme). Similarly, a piece of lean meat, containing mainly protein substance with little fat and carbohydrate, would cause the secretion of protease enzymes with token amounts of lipase and amylase. This selective secretion of digestive enzymes was said to be present in man as well as in animals.⁽²⁾ Dr. E. Howell called this The Law of Adaptive Secretion of Digestive Enzymes.

5. The Enzyme Bank Account. According to Dr. Howell, we are born with a limited supply of enzymes at birth. Dr. Howell stated clearly in his book, Food Enzymes for Health and Longevity, "When we eat cooked, enzyme-free food, the body is forced to produce enzymes needed for digestion. This "stealing" of enzymes from other parts of the body sets up a competition for enzymes among the various organ systems and tissues of the human body. The resulting metabolic dislocations may be the direct cause of ... many chronic incurable disease."

6. The vital force. Dr. Howell and other scientists challenged the idea that enzymes are only lifeless catalysts with certain chemical structures and reactions. They consider enzymes to possess a vital force or "biotic energy". In this publication, "The Status of Food Enzymes in Digestive and Metabolism", Dr. Howell wrote: "It is no longer warranted to consider vitality and life energy as intangible forces. The available evidence does not justify a placid continuance of nihilistic attitude toward the vital forces operating in the living organism. Enzymes emerge as the true yardstick of vitality. Enzymes offer an important means of calculating the vital energy of an organism. That which has been referred to as vitality, vital force ... probably is synonymous with that which has been known as enzyme activity..."

Dr. Howell was not alone in holding this concept which is equally shared by prominent scholars like Professor Moore of the University of Oxford in England, professor Willstatter of Munich in Germany and Northrop of Rockefellar Institute for Medical Research.

USE OF DIGESTIVE ENZYMES

Digestive enzymes are widely used by practicing orthodox physicians as well as by nutritionists who are students of Dr. Howell's School of Food Enzymes. Physicians prescribe digestive enzymes and bile preparations to correct deficiency states in their patients. This is a form of replacement therapy. Nutritionists advocate the liberal use of food enzymes in normal persons to achieve optimal health and longevity. With the introduction of a number of food enzymes, they hope to enhance digestion. However, Dr. Howell strongly advises lay people who would like to try The Food Enzyme Therapy, to seek advice from a qualified Health Professional.

Ordinary digestive enzymes sold over the counter (OTC) are prepared from either animal or vegetable sources. For example, Pancreatin B.P. comes from the animal source and will not be accepted by vegetarians. Unripe papaya and pineapple will yield digestive enzymes for proteins on