COPPER (Cu)

General - trace mineral;

• More than 12 enzymes known to contain copper;
• Adult body contains 75 to 150 micrograms of copper;
• Food content of copper reflects soil content;
• Typical diets contain 1 mg/day or less copper, half of recommended intake;
• History: iron-resistant anaemia in animals on milk diet identified in 1900; copper requirement to reverse iron-resistant anaemia in animals established in 1928; copper deficiency syndrome in humans identified in 1966;

Nutrition

• Sources: oysters, shellfish, liver, cherries, nuts, chocolates;
• Supplements: zinc-copper salts & amino acid chelates, multi-mineral, multi-mineral-vitamin formulations;
• Absorption rapidly from stomach & upper intestine; depends on copper-binding protein (metallothionein) that also absorbs cadmium & zinc; 25 - 40% of dietary copper is absorbed;
• Improved by: amino acids & fresh vegetables;
• Antagonized by: mercury, lead, sulphides, raw meat & silver; cadmium & Zn compete for absorption sites; high levels of vitamin. C; molybdenum antagonizes copper absorption;
• Storage: in muscle, skin, bone marrow, skeleton, liver & brain; most concentrated in liver & brain; circulates in blood, bound to protein complex; released from liver into blood by adrenal gland function;
• Excretion: by liver through bile; EDTA & acetyl cysteine increase copper excretion, but other minerals as well; penicillamine increases copper excretion 200-fold, but removes other minerals also; - excretion: through urine;
• Metabolism: intake must be balanced with zinc & iron intake; imbalances may be common; infection & inflammation result in transient increase in serum copper;
• Interactions: copper is elevated by estrogens; deficiency of zinc accentuates copper excess; smoking, anti-convulsants, corticosteroids increase plasma copper levels; long-term, corticosteroids decrease plasma copper; aspirin, henylbutazone, indomethacin & dexamethazone tie up copper in stomach, make it unavailable for absorption & may lead to inflammation & ulcers;

Functions of Copper

• Necessary for the synthesis of white & red blood cells; stimulates synthesis of red blood pigment components;
• Aids in iron absorption, preventing anaemia; releases stored iron from liver; plays role in oxidizing ferrous (+2) to ferric (+3) iron;
• Plays important anti-oxidant role, in preventing destructive oxygen (super oxide) and Fe free radicals from being formed; anti-oxidant & anti-inflammatory actions;
• Protects against lung tissue damage (emphysema) resulting from pollutants & smoking;
• Helps oxidize vitamin C; with vitamin C, copper activates enzyme (lysyl oxidase) involved in synthesis of elastin (arterial wall protein) & collagen (connective tissue protein);
• Involved in protein synthesis & tissue healing;
• Involved in metabolism of neurotransmitters (catecholamines);
• Necessary for the body’s reactions to acute stress; acts as body’s fire extinguisher;
• Part of enzyme which converts amino acid tyrosine into (tanning) pigment melanin;
• Necessary for mineralization of bones & skeleton;
• Used in energy metabolism & fatty acid oxidation (oxidative phosphorylation);
• Part of superoxide dismutase, enzyme that protects cells against oxygen free radical damage;
• Required to synthesize phospholipids, needed to form nerve sheath (myelin);
• Copper is necessary in temperature regulation, cholesterol metabolism, immune function, heart function, regulation of glucose metabolism;
• May protect against cancer, cardiovascular disease, arthritis and immune deficiency;

• Measurement: milligrams;
• Optimum: (SONA) not yet established, suggested intake is 2 - 3 mg/day; optimum zinc/copper ratio is between 8: 1 and 15: 1;
• Individual optimum needs to be determined for each individual case; copper need increases with increased vitamin C consumption, increased stress & increased zinc;
• Minimum: (DRI) 900 μg/day;
• Less than RDA: no official estimate, but estimates indicate that 90% of population is lacking biologically available copper; average U.S. intake from foods is 760 μg/day.
• Deficiency from inadequate intake, plus stress; inadequate absorption (high vitamin C or zinc, alkali, bypass); decreased utilization; increased loss (diarrhoea, celiac & Crohn’s disease, sprue, chelation therapy); increased requirement (premature birth, pregnancy, lactation);
• Symptoms include: anaemia; loss of bone & brittleness (osteoporosis); slowed growth in children; hair loss; enlarged heart, weak arteries (from elastin defect), decreased beneficial HDL cholesterol, increased total cholesterol; depigmentation of hair & skin; decreased tensile strength of skin; degeneration of nervous system, with abnormal behaviour; low body temperature (hypothermia) due to lowered thyroid function; damage to lung tissues (emphysema); reproductive failure; ulcer patients have 23% less copper in their body;
• Increased cholesterol; shortened red cell life span; decreased glucose tolerance; decreased glutathione activity; increased oxygen consumption of heart tissue; decreased formation of immune cells; increased liver iron; altered brain wave patterns;
• Combined copper & selenium deficiency is factor in development of cardiovascular disease;
• Toxicity: inorganic copper from old plumbing inhibits many enzymes; nausea & vomiting; Wilson’s disease accumulates copper in liver, kidneys, brain & cornea; 25 mg/day can be toxic;
• Elevated copper found in some cases of paranoia, schizophrenia, hyperactivity, hypertension, PMS, toxaemia of pregnancy, insomnia, senility & hypoglycaemia appear to be consequences rather than causes of these conditions;
• Toxicity reversed by: zinc + manganese in ratio of 20:1;

Therapy with copper

• 2 - 5 mg/day as usual therapeutic dose; 10 - 35 mg/day as amino acid chelate would probably be safe indefinitely; copper sulphate is potent emetic—5 to 10 mg dose results in nausea;
• May help prevent cancer (anti-oxidant function);
• May raise HDL, lower cholesterol & prevent aneurisms & rupture of arteries;
• May protect against & help diminish osteo & rheumatoid arthritis (anti-oxidant effect);
• May boost immune function;
• Given as part of balanced supplement;
• Copper bracelet worn traditionally to treat inflammatory diseases, esp. rheumatoid & osteo arthritis; results not yet confirmed by research;